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Germs (or microbes) are tiny living organisms like bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protozoa, many of which are invisible to the naked eye and can cause illness by invading the body, consuming nutrients, and producing harmful toxins, though some are harmless or even helpful. They spread through air, surfaces, and direct Read more

The oesophagus (or esophagus) is the muscular tube connecting the throat (pharynx) to the stomach, responsible for transporting food and liquids via wave-like muscle contractions (peristalsis). It’s part of the digestive system, located behind the windpipe, and features sphincters at its top and bottom to control food entry and prevent Read more

Stomach acid, primarily hydrochloric acid (HCl), is a powerful digestive fluid with a pH of 1.5-3.5, crucial for breaking down food (especially proteins into amino acids), activating digestive enzymes like pepsin, and killing harmful bacteria and pathogens ingested with food. It’s produced by the stomach lining and protected by a Read more

Digestive juices are fluids secreted by glands in your mouth, stomach, pancreas, liver, and small intestine, containing water, enzymes (like amylase, protease, lipase), and acids that chemically break down food into nutrients your body can absorb for energy, repair, and growth. Key juices include saliva (starts starch digestion), gastric juice Read more

Proteins are essential macronutrients made of amino acid chains, crucial for building and repairing tissues, making enzymes and hormones, supporting immune function, and transporting molecules, with functions determined by their specific 3D shapes. Found in meats, eggs, dairy, legumes, and nuts, they provide structure (collagen, keratin) and catalyze vital reactions Read more

Nutrient absorption is the vital process where digested food molecules pass from the digestive tract (mainly the small intestine) into the bloodstream and lymphatic system, providing the body with energy, growth, and repair materials. This involves breaking down food into simple sugars, amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals, which Read more

Emotional regulation is a skill that involves managing your own emotions in different situations. It can help people cope with stress, improve their well-being, and achieve their goals.

The free rider problem is an economic issue where individuals benefit from a public good or service (like national defense or clean air) without paying for it, because it’s hard to exclude non-payers. This leads to under-provision or non-provision of the good, as people have little incentive to contribute, hoping Read more

Negative interdependence: This occurs when group members have conflicting goals and suffer from each other’s success

Positive interdependence: This occurs when group members share a common goal and benefit from each other’s success.