Social comparison theory

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Social comparison theory

Social comparison theory is a psychological concept that explains how people evaluate their own abilities and opinions by comparing themselves to others. The theory was first proposed by Leon Festinger in 1954, who suggested that people have an innate drive to seek accurate self-assessments. According to the theory, people compare themselves to others who are similar to them in some way, and they can make either upward or downward comparisons. Social comparison theory has important implications for understanding human behaviour, motivation, self-esteem, and wellbeing. In this article, we will review the main aspects of social comparison theory, its applications and limitations, and some of the current research on this topic. We will also review how it relates to self-transcendence.

What is social comparison theory, and why is it important?

Social comparison theory is a psychological concept that explains how people evaluate their own abilities and opinions by comparing themselves to others. According to this theory, people tend to seek out information about how they measure up to others in various domains, such as appearance, intelligence, performance, or happiness. This process of social comparison can have significant effects on people’s self-esteem, motivation, emotions, and behaviour. Social comparison theory is important because it helps us understand why people sometimes feel dissatisfied with themselves or their lives, how they cope with challenges or threats, and what factors influence their social judgments and decisions.

How does social comparison affect our self-esteem, emotions, and behaviour?

Social comparison is the process of evaluating ourselves in relation to others. It can have significant effects on our self-esteem, emotions, and behaviour. Depending on whether we compare ourselves to those who are better or worse than us, and whether we perceive the comparison as relevant or irrelevant, we may experience different outcomes. For example, upward social comparison, or comparing ourselves to those who are superior to us, can motivate us to improve ourselves, but it can also lower our self-esteem and make us feel envious or inferior. Downward social comparison, or comparing ourselves to those who are inferior to us, can boost our self-esteem and make us feel grateful or superior, but it can also reduce our motivation and make us complacent or arrogant. Furthermore, social comparison can influence our emotions and behaviour towards others, such as increasing our empathy or hostility, cooperation or competition, admiration or resentment. Therefore, social comparison is a complex and pervasive phenomenon that shapes our self-concept and social interactions.

What are the main types of social comparison (upward, downward, and lateral) and how do they differ?

Social comparison is a process by which people evaluate their own abilities, opinions, emotions, and other attributes by comparing them to those of others. Social comparison theory, proposed by Leon Festinger in 1954, suggests that people have an innate drive to assess themselves in relation to others. There are three main types of social comparison: upward, downward, and lateral.

Upward social comparison

Upward social comparison occurs when people compare themselves to others who are better off than them in some way. This type of comparison can have positive or negative effects, depending on the motivation and outcome of the comparison. For example, upward social comparison can inspire people to improve themselves or learn from others who have achieved more. However, it can also lead to feelings of inferiority, envy, or resentment if people perceive a large gap between themselves and others or feel that they cannot attain the same level of success.

Some examples of upward social comparison are:

• A student who compares his or her grades to the top performer in the class and feels motivated to study harder.
• A runner who compares his or her speed to the fastest runner in the race and tries to improve his or her technique.
• A worker who compares his or her salary to the highest-paid employee in the company and seeks more opportunities for promotion.
• A person who compares his or her appearance to a celebrity or a model and adopts a healthier lifestyle or a new fashion style.

Upward social comparison can have positive or negative effects on one’s self-esteem, depending on how realistic and attainable the comparison target is, and how one interprets the gap between oneself and the target. Upward social comparison can also influence one’s emotions, such as admiration, envy, pride, or resentment.

Benefits and drawbacks of upward social comparison

Upward social comparison is the process of comparing oneself to others who are perceived as better or more successful in some domains. This can have both positive and negative effects on one’s self-evaluation, motivation, and well-being. Some of the benefits of upward social comparison are:

• It can inspire one to set higher goals and strive for self-improvement.
• It can provide useful information and feedback on how to achieve desired outcomes.
• Furthermore, it can enhance one’s self-esteem and confidence by highlighting one’s strengths and achievements relative to others.

Some of the drawbacks of upward social comparison are:

• It can lower one’s self-esteem and satisfaction by highlighting one’s weaknesses and failures relative to others.
• It can induce envy, resentment, and frustration towards those who are perceived as superior or advantaged.
• Furthermore, it can impair one’s performance and well-being by creating unrealistic expectations and pressure to conform or compete with others.

Downward social comparison

Downward social comparison occurs when people compare themselves to others who are worse off than them in some way. This type of comparison can also have positive or negative effects, depending on the motivation and outcome of the comparison. For example, downward social comparison can boost self-esteem or gratitude by making people appreciate what they have or how far they have come. However, it can also lead to feelings of complacency, arrogance, or pity if people look down on others or feel superior to them.

Factors that influence the effects of upward social comparison

Upward social comparison can have different effects on people’s emotions, motivation, and self-esteem, depending on various factors. Some of these factors are:

Similarity: The degree to which the comparison target is similar to oneself in relevant attributes. Upward social comparison with a similar target can be more inspiring and motivating than with a dissimilar target, as it increases the perceived attainability of the desired outcome. However, it can also be more threatening and depressing, as it highlights the gap between oneself and the target (Guyer & Vaughan-Johnston, 2018).

Relevance: The extent to which the comparison domain is important or relevant to one’s self-concept or goals. Upward social comparison in a relevant domain can be more beneficial than in an irrelevant domain, as it can enhance one’s learning and performance. However, it can also be more detrimental, as it can lower one’s self-evaluation and satisfaction (Buunk et al., 2005).

Motivation: The type of motivation that drives the comparison process. Upward social comparison can be driven by either self-improvement motivation or self-enhancement motivation. Self-improvement motivation involves seeking feedback and guidance from superior others to improve oneself, while self-enhancement motivation involves seeking affirmation and validation from superior others to boost one’s self-image. Upward social comparison with self-improvement motivation can be more adaptive than with self-enhancement motivation, as it can foster growth and development. However, it can also be more challenging, as it requires effort and persistence (Wood et al., 1985).

Mood: The affective state that influences or is influenced by the comparison process. Upward social comparison can have different effects on mood depending on whether one is in a positive or negative mood. Upward social comparison when in a positive mood can be more enjoyable and rewarding than when in a negative mood, as it can amplify one’s positive emotions and optimism. However, it can also be more risky, as it can create unrealistic expectations and overconfidence (Wheeler & Miyake, 1992).

Definition and examples of downward social comparison

Downward social comparison is a psychological process in which individuals compare themselves to others who are worse off than them to enhance their self-esteem or cope with negative emotions. It can be motivated by a desire to feel good about oneself, to justify one’s situation, or to learn from others’ mistakes. Downward social comparison can have positive or negative consequences depending on the context and the way it is done. For example, downward social comparison can boost one’s confidence, optimism, and motivation, but it can also lead to complacency, resentment, or prejudice.

Here are some examples of downward social comparison:

• A student who is struggling with a difficult course may compare himself to a classmate who failed the exam and feel better about his own performance.
• A person who is unhappy with her appearance may compare herself to someone who is less attractive or has a physical disability and feel more satisfied with her looks.
• A worker who is dissatisfied with his salary may compare himself to someone who is unemployed or homeless and feel more grateful for his income.
• A patient who is diagnosed with a chronic illness may compare herself to someone who has a terminal disease and feel more hopeful about her prognosis.

Benefits and drawbacks of downward social comparison

Some of the benefits of downward social comparison are:

• It can boost one’s self-evaluation by making one feel superior or more fortunate than others. For example, a person who is unhappy with their job may compare themselves with someone who is unemployed and feel better about their situation.
• It can help one deal with threats or challenges by providing a sense of control or optimism. For example, a person who is diagnosed with a serious illness may compare themselves with someone who has a worse prognosis and feel more hopeful about their recovery.
• It can help one rationalize or justify one’s behaviour by making it seem more acceptable or normative. For example, a person who cheats on a test may compare themselves with someone who cheats more often and feel less guilty about their action.

Some of the drawbacks of downward social comparison are:

• It can lower one’s standards or aspirations by making one complacent or satisfied with mediocrity. For example, a student who performs poorly on an exam may compare themselves with someone who fails and lose the motivation to improve their performance.
• It can trigger negative emotions such as pity, contempt, or resentment toward the comparison target. For example, a person who is successful in their career may compare themselves with someone who is struggling and feel sorry for them, look down on them, or envy them.
• It can increase prejudice or discrimination by reinforcing stereotypes or devaluing the out-group. For example, a person who belongs to a privileged group may compare themselves with someone who belongs to a disadvantaged group and feel superior, indifferent, or hostile toward them.

Therefore, downward social comparison can have both positive and negative consequences for one’s self-concept and well-being. It is important to be aware of the reasons and effects of engaging in this type of comparison, and to use it wisely and sparingly.

Factors that influence the effects of downward social comparison

Downward social comparison can serve as a way of enhancing one’s self-esteem, coping with stress, or justifying one’s situation. However, downward social comparison can also have negative consequences, such as reducing one’s motivation, inducing guilt, or fostering prejudice. Therefore, it is important to understand the factors that influence the effects of downward social comparison.

Some of the factors that can moderate the effects of downward social comparison are:

Similarity: The degree to which the comparison target is similar to oneself on relevant attributes. Similarity can increase the identification and empathy with the target, which can reduce the self-enhancement effect and increase the negative affect. However, similarity can also increase the relevance and credibility of the comparison, which can enhance the self-evaluation effect and reduce the negative affect. The direction and magnitude of the similarity effect may depend on the type of attribute, the level of abstraction, and the context of the comparison.

Relevance: The degree to which the comparison dimension is important or central to one’s self-concept. Relevance can increase the salience and impact of the comparison, which can enhance the self-evaluation effect and reduce the negative affect. However, relevance can also increase the threat and defensiveness associated with the comparison, which can reduce the self-enhancement effect and increase the negative affect. The direction and magnitude of the relevance effect may depend on the valence and stability of the attribute, the availability of alternative dimensions, and the goal of the comparison.

Motivation: The degree to which one has a specific goal or purpose for engaging in downward social comparison. Motivation can influence the selection and interpretation of the comparison target and dimension, as well as the emotional and behavioural responses to the comparison. For example, if one is motivated by self-enhancement, one may choose a dissimilar and irrelevant target on a negative dimension, which can maximize the positive effect and minimize the negative effect. If one is motivated by self-improvement, one may choose a similar and relevant target on a positive dimension, which can minimize the positive effect and maximize the negative effect.

Mood: The degree to which one is experiencing a positive or negative affective state before or during downward social comparison. Mood can influence the accessibility and evaluation of information related to oneself and others, as well as the regulation and expression of emotions resulting from downward social comparison. For example, if one is in a positive mood, one may be more likely to engage in downward social comparison for informational or entertainment purposes, which can maintain or enhance the positive mood. If one is in a negative mood, one may be more likely to engage in downward social comparison for coping or escape purposes, which can alleviate or worsen the negative mood.

Definition and examples of lateral social comparison

Lateral social comparison is a type of social comparison that involves comparing oneself with another person who is considered to be more or less equal on a relevant dimension. For example, a student might compare his or her grades with those of a classmate who has a similar level of academic ability. Lateral social comparison can serve different functions depending on the context and the motivation of the person making the comparison. Some possible functions are:

• To validate one’s self-evaluation or self-perception
• To enhance one’s self-esteem or self-worth
• To learn from others’ experiences or strategies
• To adjust one’s expectations or goals
• To form or maintain social bonds or identity

Lateral social comparison is contrasted with upward social comparison, which involves comparing oneself with someone who is perceived to be better than oneself on a relevant dimension, and downward social comparison, which involves comparing oneself with someone who is perceived to be worse than oneself on a relevant dimension. These types of social comparison can also have different effects on one’s self-concept and well-being, depending on the situation and the interpretation of the comparison outcome. For instance, upward social comparison can be inspiring or discouraging, and downward social comparison can be comforting or depressing.

Lateral social comparison is an important concept in social psychology because it helps us understand how people evaluate themselves and others in relation to their social environment. It also has implications for various domains of life, such as education, health, work, and relationships. Lateral social comparison can influence how people feel about themselves and their abilities, how they cope with challenges and feedback, how they interact with others and form social groups, and how they pursue their goals and aspirations.

Some examples of lateral social comparison are:

• A student compares his grades with his classmates who have similar academic abilities and interests.
• A runner compares her speed and endurance with other runners who participate in the same races and trainings.
• A musician compares his skills and creativity with other musicians who play the same instrument and genre.
• A worker compares her salary and benefits with other workers who have the same position and experience.
• A parent compares his parenting style and practices with other parents who have children of the same age and temperament.

Benefits and drawbacks of lateral social comparison

Some of the benefits of lateral social comparison are:

• It can enhance one’s self-esteem and confidence by providing evidence of one’s strengths and achievements.
• It can inspire one to set higher goals and strive for improvement by learning from others’ successes and strategies.
• Furthermore, it can foster a sense of belonging and social support by creating a shared identity and common interests with others.

Some of the drawbacks of lateral social comparison are:

• It can lower one’s self-esteem and satisfaction by highlighting one’s weaknesses and failures.
• It can induce envy, resentment, and competition by creating a sense of inferiority or superiority based on arbitrary standards.
• Furthermore, it can impair one’s performance and creativity by causing anxiety, distraction, or conformity.

Therefore, lateral social comparison can be a useful or harmful tool depending on how it is used and interpreted. One should be aware of the potential biases and pitfalls of this process and adopt a balanced and constructive approach to comparing oneself to others.

Factors that influence the effects of lateral social comparison

Lateral social comparison can have various effects on one’s self-evaluation, motivation, and behaviour. However, the effects of lateral social comparison are not uniform and depend on several factors, such as:

Similarity: The degree to which the comparison target is similar to oneself in terms of attributes, opinions, or outcomes. Higher similarity can increase the relevance and accuracy of the comparison, but also the potential for threat or envy.
Relevance: The extent to which the comparison domain is important or central to one’s self-concept or goals. Higher relevance can enhance the informational and motivational value of the comparison, but also the emotional impact of positive or negative feedback.

Motivation: The underlying reason or purpose for engaging in social comparison. Different motivations can lead to different comparison strategies and outcomes. For example, self-enhancement motivation can lead to downward comparison (comparing oneself to worse-off others) to boost one’s self-esteem, while self-improvement motivation can lead to upward comparison (comparing oneself to better-off others) to learn from their success.

Relevance: This is an important factor that influences how lateral social comparison affects one’s self-evaluation and motivation. When the comparison domain is relevant to one’s personal goals or values, lateral social comparison can provide accurate feedback and inspire self-improvement. However, when the comparison domain is irrelevant or unimportant, lateral social comparison can be detrimental to one’s self-esteem and well-being. Therefore, it is essential to be aware of the relevance of the comparison domain and choose appropriate comparison targets for optimal outcomes.

Mood: The affective state or emotion that one experiences before or during social comparison. Mood can influence the direction and intensity of social comparison, as well as the interpretation and reaction to the comparison feedback. For example, positive mood can facilitate upward comparison and positive affective reactions, while negative mood can trigger downward comparison and negative affective reactions.

Limitations and future directions for research on social comparison theory

One of the challenges for research on social comparison theory is to identify the factors that influence the direction, frequency, and consequences of social comparisons. Social comparison theory, proposed by Leon Festinger in 1954, suggests that people evaluate their own opinions and abilities by comparing themselves to others. However, not all comparisons are alike, and different types of comparisons may have different effects on self-esteem, motivation, and wellbeing. For example, upward comparisons with people who are better off may inspire or discourage us, depending on whether we perceive the comparison standard as attainable or not. Downward comparisons with people who are worse off may boost or harm our self-image, depending on whether we empathize with them or distance ourselves from them. Furthermore, social comparisons may vary depending on the domain of comparison, the salience of the comparison target, and the personal and situational factors that affect one’s self-evaluation.

Therefore, future directions for research on social comparison theory should aim to explore how these various factors interact and influence the outcomes of social comparisons. Some possible questions that could be addressed are:

• How do people select their comparison targets and standards in different domains and contexts?
• How do individual differences in personality, self-esteem, mood, and motivation affect the direction and frequency of social comparisons?
• How do social comparisons influence one’s emotions, cognitions, behaviours, and goals in relation to the comparison target and standard?
• How do social comparisons affect one’s relationships with others, such as peers, friends, family, and strangers?
• How do social comparisons shape one’s self-concept and identity over time?

By answering these questions, research on social comparison theory could advance our understanding of how people cope with uncertainty and complexity in their social environments, and how they construct and maintain their sense of self in relation to others.

Practical suggestions for using social comparison in a healthy and constructive way

Social comparison can be a source of motivation, inspiration, and self-improvement, but it can also lead to dissatisfaction, envy, and resentment. Here are some practical suggestions for using social comparison in a healthy and constructive way:

• Compare yourself to your past self, not to others. Focus on your own progress and achievements, and celebrate your personal growth. This will help you appreciate how far you have come and what you have learned along the way.
• Compare yourself to realistic and relevant standards, not to idealized or unrealistic ones. Choose role models or benchmarks that are similar to you in terms of abilities, circumstances, and goals. This will help you set realistic expectations and avoid feeling inadequate or discouraged.
• Compare yourself to people who are better than you in some aspects, but not in others. Learn from their strengths and successes, but also recognize their weaknesses and failures. This will help you develop a balanced and nuanced perspective on yourself and others.
• Compare yourself to people who are worse than you in some aspects, but not in others. Be grateful for your advantages and opportunities, but also empathize with their challenges and difficulties. This will help you cultivate a sense of gratitude and compassion for yourself and others.
• Compare yourself to people who are different from you in some aspects, but not in others. Appreciate the diversity and variety of human experiences, but also acknowledge the commonalities and similarities. This will help you expand your horizons and connect with others on a deeper level.

How social comparison relates to self-transcendence

self-transcendence is the state of going beyond one’s self-interest and connecting with something greater, such as a higher purpose, a spiritual reality, or a collective good. How does this relate to social comparison?

One possible answer is that social comparison can either facilitate or hinder self-transcendence, depending on how it is used and what its effects are. For example, upward comparison can motivate people to improve themselves and aspire to higher goals, which may lead to self-transcendence if those goals are aligned with a greater cause or value. However, upward comparison can also cause dissatisfaction, envy, and insecurity, which may prevent self-transcendence if they make people focus on their own shortcomings and ego needs.

Similarly, downward comparison can boost self-esteem and gratitude, which may foster self-transcendence if they make people appreciate what they have and share it with others. However, downward comparison can also breed complacency, arrogance, and prejudice, which may obstruct self-transcendence if they make people feel superior and detached from others.

Therefore, social comparison is not inherently good or bad for self-transcendence, but rather depends on how it affects one’s self-perception, emotions, and behaviour. A balanced and constructive use of social comparison may help people achieve self-transcendence by inspiring them to grow and contribute to a larger whole. An excessive and destructive use of social comparison may hinder self-transcendence by trapping them in a cycle of competition and dissatisfaction.

Further reading

If you are interested in learning more about social comparison and its implications for individuals and society, here are some weblinks for further reading:

Social Comparison Theory in Psychology by Kendra Cherry

Social Comparison Theory & 12 Real-Life Examples by Alicia Nortje

The culture of social comparison