glossary

Abraham Maslow was an American psychologist who created Maslow's hierarchy of needs, a theory of psychological health based on fulfilling innate human needs in a certain order, leading to self-actualization. Maslow was one of the founders of humanistic psychology, a school of thought that emphasizes human potential and growth. Maslow's theory has influenced many fields of psychology, education, management, and positive psychology.

In the framework outlined by Khalsa et al. (2018) via the National Institutes of Health (NIH), adaptive behaviour relies on interoception—the process by which the nervous system senses, interprets, and integrates internal bodily signals to drive homeostatic and functional responses

ACT-R (Adaptive Control of Thought-Rational) is a cognitive architecture developed by John Anderson and Christian Lebiere at Carnegie Mellon University. It serves as a computational framework and theory for simulating human mind operations, breaking down complex tasks into modular, discrete perceptual, cognitive, and motor steps

Adrenaline is a hormone that is produced by the adrenal glands when a person faces a stressful, dangerous, or exciting situation. It triggers the fight-or-flight response, which prepares the body to either confront or escape the threat. Adrenaline increases heart rate, blood pressure, breathing rate, blood sugar, and alertness. It also reduces pain perception and dilates the pupils. Adrenaline can help a person survive or perform better in challenging circumstances, but too much or too little adrenaline can cause health problems.

An adverse childhood experience (ACE) is a traumatic event or situation that occurs during childhood and/or adolescence. ACEs can be a single event, or prolonged threats to, and breaches of, the young person’s safety, security, trust or bodily integrity. Examples of ACEs include physical, sexual, or emotional abuse, neglect, exposure to domestic violence, substance abuse, mental illness, incarceration, or loss of a parent. ACEs can have lasting impacts on the physical and mental health of the person throughout their life.

Agitation is a psychological state of increased arousal and restlessness. It is often associated with negative emotions such as anxiety, anger, or frustration. Agitation can impair a person's ability to think clearly, communicate effectively, or cope with stress. Agitation can also manifest as physical symptoms such as pacing, fidgeting, or trembling.

Albert Einstein was a German-born physicist who developed the theory of relativity, one of the pillars of modern physics. He received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921 for his discovery of the photoelectric effect, which showed that light has both wave and particle properties.

Alchemy is a branch of natural philosophy that aims to transform matter, especially base metals, into gold, and to discover the elixir of life and the philosopher's stone. It has a long and complex history, spanning from Ancient Egypt and China to medieval Europe and the Islamic world. Alchemy is considered a precursor of modern chemistry, but also a form of esoteric and spiritual practice.

Allostasis is the brain's active process of maintaining stability (homeostasis) by making adaptive changes to physiological systems (like releasing cortisol/adrenaline) in anticipation of or in response to environmental challenges, essentially "stability through change". While crucial for survival, chronic activation leads to allostatic load - wear and tear on the body from constant recalibration - which increases the risk for stress-related conditions like hypertension, diabetes, and inflammation.

Alters are different identities that a person with dissociative identity disorder (DID) may experience. They are not separate personalities, but rather aspects of the person's sense of self that have been fragmented by trauma. Alters may have different names, ages, genders, memories, preferences, and behaviours than the person's main identity. Alters may also be unaware of each other or have different levels of awareness and communication.

Altruism is a type of prosocial behaviour that involves acting out of concern for the well-being of other people, without expecting any reward or benefit. Altruism can be motivated by different factors, such as genetic relatedness, reciprocal exchange, group affiliation, or moral values. Psychology studies how altruism develops, what influences it, and how it can be cultivated in individuals and societies. Some examples of altruism are donating blood, volunteering for a cause, helping a stranger in need, or sacrificing one's life for others.

The amygdala is a part of the brain that is involved in emotional processing, memory formation, and fear responses. It is located in the temporal lobe, near the hippocampus. The amygdala consists of two almond-shaped clusters of neurons that receive inputs from various sensory modalities and send outputs to different brain regions. The amygdala plays a key role in regulating emotions such as anger, anxiety, happiness, and sadness.

Analytical psychology is a branch of psychology that explores the human psyche through concepts such as archetypes, collective unconscious, individuation, and synchronicity. It was developed by Carl Jung and his followers, and aims to help people achieve psychological balance and wholeness.

Anchoring bias: We rely too much on the first piece of information we receive and adjust our estimates insufficiently from it. For instance, we might be influenced by the initial price of a product and not consider other factors that affect its value.

According to Jung, the anima is the unconscious feminine aspect of a man's psyche. It represents his inner personality, emotions, creativity and intuition. The anima is also a source of inspiration and attraction for the opposite sex.

According to Jung, the animus is the unconscious masculine side of a woman, and the anima is the unconscious feminine side of a man, each transcending the personal psyche. These are two primary anthropomorphic archetypes of the unconscious mind that represent the "true self" rather than the image presented to others. For example, a woman may project her animus onto a man she admires or fears, seeing him as an ideal or a threat, while a man may project his anima onto a woman he loves or hates, seeing her as a goddess or a witch.

Annihilational is an adjective that describes something related to annihilation. Annihilation can have two meanings: one is the complete and total destruction of something by causing so much damage that it cannot be repaired or no longer exists; the other is the reaction in which a particle and its antiparticle collide and disappear, releasing energy and producing other particles . For example, one can say that a nuclear bomb has an annihilational effect on a city, or that an electron and a positron undergo annihilational interaction when they meet.

Antipsychotics are a class of medication that are used to treat psychosis and other mental health problems that involve psychotic symptoms. Psychosis is a condition where a person has difficulty distinguishing reality from their own thoughts and perceptions, and may experience delusions, hallucinations, paranoia or disordered thinking. Antipsychotics work by affecting the levels of certain chemicals in the brain, called neurotransmitters, that are involved in mood, cognition and perception. Some of the neurotransmitters that antipsychotics target are dopamine, serotonin, noradrenaline and acetylcholine. Antipsychotics can help reduce and control psychotic symptoms, such as delusions and hallucinations, and make them less distressing or bothersome for the person. They can also help prevent the symptoms from returning in the future (relapse). Antipsychotics are usually prescribed by a psychiatrist or a doctor, and can be taken in different forms, such as tablets, liquid, injection or inhalation. There are many types of antipsychotics available in the UK, and they may have different effects and side effects for different people. Some of the common side effects of antipsychotics are weight gain, sedation, dry mouth, blurred vision and movement problems. Antipsychotics are not a cure for psychosis, but they can help people manage their condition and live their lives more comfortably.

Anxiety is a psychological state that involves both mental and physical aspects. Mentally, anxiety is characterized by worry, apprehension, and negative expectations about the future. Physically, anxiety is associated with increased arousal and activation of the body's stress response system. Anxiety is a natural and adaptive reaction to perceived threats or challenges, but it can become problematic when it is excessive, persistent, or out of proportion to the situation. Anxiety can interfere with daily functioning and well-being, and may lead to anxiety disorders that require professional treatment.

An archetypal source-domain is a transpersonal generative field capable of becoming locally personified in many distinct forms.

According to Jung, archetypes are universal, inherited patterns of thought and behaviour that are present in the collective unconscious of all human beings. They are innate potentials that are expressed in human behaviour and experiences, and are shaped by individual and cultural factors. Archetypes are hidden forms that are activated when they enter consciousness and influence the degree of individuation, or the development of the individual's unique identity.

Aretaic attributes are qualities or characteristics that relate to virtue ethics, a branch of moral philosophy that focuses on the development of moral excellence or human flourishing. Aretaic attributes can be divided into two main types: intellectual virtues and moral virtues. Intellectual virtues are habits of mind that enable one to reason well and acquire knowledge, such as wisdom, prudence, and understanding. Moral virtues are habits of action that enable one to act well and achieve happiness, such as courage, justice, and generosity. They are not innate or fixed, but rather acquired and cultivated through practice and experience. Aretaic attributes are also context-dependent and situation-sensitive, meaning that they require practical wisdom to apply them appropriately in different circumstances. Aretaic attributes are the basis of a pure aretaic ethic, which holds that the notion of a character trait is primary and that valuable traits of character are necessary to live a good life in the fullest sense

Assertive community treatment (ACT) is a model of mental health care that provides intensive, multidisciplinary, and individualized services to people with severe and persistent mental illnesses. ACT teams work with clients in their natural settings, such as their homes, workplaces, or community locations, and offer a range of services, such as medication management, psychotherapy, crisis intervention, social support, and vocational assistance. The goal of ACT is to help clients achieve recovery and live independently in the community.

Astral projection is a term that refers to the phenomenon of experiencing consciousness outside of one's physical body. It is also known as out-of-body experience (OBE) or soul travel. Some people claim to have astral projected voluntarily or involuntarily, while others regard it as a form of lucid dreaming or hallucination. There is no scientific evidence to support the existence of astral projection, and the mechanisms and implications of such an experience are highly controversial.

Astrology is the study of the movements and positions of celestial bodies and their influence on human affairs and the natural world. Astrologers believe that the stars, planets, sun and moon can affect various aspects of life, such as personality, relationships, health and career.

Attribution breadth: the hierarchical distance between the likely causal process and the level receiving responsibility.

Authenticity is a psychological concept that refers to the degree to which a person is true to their own values, beliefs, and identity. Authenticity involves being aware of one's own motives, emotions, preferences, and abilities, and acting in ways that are consistent with them. It also implies being honest and open in one's relationships with others, and not hiding or pretending to be someone else. Authenticity is considered to be important for psychological well-being, as it allows a person to express their true self and achieve their full potential. Authenticity can be challenged by external pressures, such as social norms, expectations, or judgments, that may conflict with one's inner self. Therefore, authenticity requires courage, self-acceptance, and self-respect.

Authenticity is a psychological concept that refers to the degree to which a person is true to their own values, beliefs, and identity. Authenticity involves being aware of one's own motives, emotions, preferences, and abilities, and acting in ways that are consistent with them. It also implies being honest and open in one's relationships with others, and not hiding or pretending to be someone else. Authenticity is considered to be important for psychological well-being, as it allows a person to express their true self and achieve their full potential. Authenticity can be challenged by external pressures, such as social norms, expectations, or judgments, that may conflict with one's inner self. Therefore, authenticity requires courage, self-acceptance, and self-respect.

Camouflaging in autism is the conscious or subconscious process of hiding autistic traits to blend in with neurotypical social norms. People use it to avoid bullying, find jobs, or feel accepted, but it often causes severe mental exhaustion, anxiety, and autistic burnout.

Automatisms are automatism actions or behaviours performed without conscious knowledge, intention, or control. The term spans multiple fields including medicine, law, and art, describing involuntary movements or creative processes driven outside normal waking awareness

Availability heuristic: We judge the likelihood of an event by how easily we can recall examples of it from memory. For instance, we might overestimate the risk of shark attacks after watching a film about them.

Avoidance behaviours are actions that people take to avoid or escape from unpleasant situations, feelings, or thoughts. For example, someone who is afraid of flying might avoid travelling by plane, or someone who is anxious about social situations might avoid going to parties. Avoidance behaviours can provide temporary relief from distress, but they can also maintain or worsen the underlying problem in the long term.

Awareness is a concept in psychology that refers to the perception or knowledge of something. It can be focused on an internal state, such as a feeling, or on external events, such as sensory input. Awareness does not necessarily imply understanding, just an ability to be conscious of, feel or perceive. It can also be distinguished from observing and perceiving, which involve a basic process of acquainting with the items we perceive. Awareness is a relative concept that may vary depending on the context and the level of consciousness.

Awe is a complex emotion that involves a sense of wonder, admiration, and reverence for something that transcends our ordinary understanding. Awe can be triggered by natural beauty, human achievements, art, music, spirituality, or other sources. Awe can have positive effects on our well-being, such as enhancing curiosity, creativity, gratitude, and humility.

Basis vectors are a set of building-block vectors in a vector space. By scaling and adding them together (a linear combination), you can make any other vector in that space. To form a basis, the vectors must be linearly independent (none can be made from the others) and span the space (cover every part of it)

Behavioural activation is a psychological intervention that aims to increase engagement in positive and meaningful activities. It is based on the idea that depression is caused by a lack of reinforcement from the environment, and that by increasing exposure to rewarding stimuli, one can improve mood and reduce depressive symptoms. Behavioural activation involves identifying and scheduling activities that are consistent with your own values and goals, and overcoming barriers to participation.

Benzodiazepines are a group of drugs that affect the central nervous system and are used to treat various conditions, such as anxiety, insomnia, and seizures. They work by increasing the activity of a brain chemical called GABA, which has a calming effect on the nerves. Benzodiazepines can cause sedation, relaxation, and reduced anxiety, but they can also have side effects and risks of dependence and withdrawal.

Bilateral medial-temporal resections involve removing or ablating structures like the hippocampus and amygdala on both sides of the brain. This procedure is generally avoided for drug-resistant epilepsy because removing both medial temporal lobes causes profound, irreversible anterograde amnesia, as historically demonstrated by patient H.M

Bilateral stimulation is a technique that involves stimulating both sides of the brain alternately, such as by moving the eyes from side to side, tapping the hands or feet, or listening to sounds in each ear. It is used in some forms of psychotherapy, such as eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR), to help process traumatic memories and reduce distress.

Biological and social rhythms are patterns of changes in our body and behaviour that occur over time. Biological rhythms are influenced by internal factors, such as hormones, genes, and brain activity. Social rhythms are influenced by external factors, such as daylight, seasons, culture, and social interactions. Both types of rhythms affect our mood, sleep, health, and performance.

Bliss is a state of intense happiness and joy that is often associated with spiritual or religious experiences. Psychologically, bliss can be seen as a form of positive affect or emotion that is characterized by feelings of fulfilment, peace, and harmony. Bliss can also be related to the concept of flow, which is a state of optimal engagement and immersion in an activity that provides intrinsic motivation and satisfaction. Bliss is not a common or everyday emotion, but rather a peak experience that transcends ordinary levels of pleasure and well-being.

Bloodstream – The network of blood vessels that carries blood (and things like hormones, oxygen, and nutrients) all around the body.

A body sensation is a physical feeling inside or on your body, such as warmth, pain, tightness, or tingling. These feelings are physical signals from your nervous system that help you notice touch, movement, temperature, or emotional states like stress and excitement.

Body-based signals are internal physical sensations and cues (like a racing heart, butterflies, or hunger) that communicate your body's needs, emotions, and well-being to your brain, a process called interoception, helping you navigate stress, safety, and basic functions like hunger, and are crucial for emotional awareness, resilience, and understanding unspoken feelings. These signals range from subtle (tight shoulders) to intense (panic), forming a vital, non-verbal communication system that, when understood, improves mental and physical health.

Bone problems – Issues with bones, such as being weak, painful, or breaking more easily than usual.

Boundaries are the limits that people set for themselves and others in their personal and professional relationships. Boundaries help people to protect their physical, emotional, mental and spiritual well-being, as well as to respect the well-being of others. They can be expressed verbally or non-verbally, and can vary depending on the context and the person. Some examples of boundaries are: saying no to unwanted requests, asking for privacy or space, communicating one's needs and preferences, avoiding toxic or abusive situations, and respecting other people's choices and opinions.

Brain fog isn't a medical condition but a term for feeling mentally cloudy, characterized by poor focus, memory issues, slow thinking, and confusion, often triggered by stress, lack of sleep, illness (like Long COVID), medications, or hormonal changes, requiring lifestyle adjustments like good sleep, stress management, and exercise, with medical consultation recommended if persistent.

In spirituality, burnout is a state of exhaustion and loss of interest in spiritual activities. It can happen when people take on too much spiritual work without allowing themselves to rest, process and grow. Some signs of spiritual burnout are feeling disconnected from oneself, others and the divine, feeling overwhelmed by suffering or questions about the meaning of life, and losing the joy and wonder of spirituality. Spiritual burnout can be healed by taking time to relax, reconnect and recharge one's spirit. This may involve meditation, prayer, service, nature, or other practices that nourish one's soul.

C. Robert Cloninger is an American psychiatrist and geneticist who has conducted influential research on the biological, psychological, social, and spiritual aspects of mental health and illness. He is a professor emeritus at Washington University in St. Louis, where he previously held the Wallace Renard Professorship of Psychiatry and served as the director of the Sansone Family Center for Well-Being and the Center for Psychobiology of Personality. He is also the director of the Anthropedia Institute, a non-profit organization that promotes wellbeing through education and coaching. Cloninger is known for his studies on the genetics and neurobiology of personality and personality disorders, as well as his development of personality assessment tools such as the Tridimensional Personality Questionnaire (TPQ) and the Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI). He has also written books on the science of well-being and happiness. Cloninger has received many awards and honours for his contributions to psychiatry, psychology, and genetics, and is a member of the National Academy of Medicine.

Carbamazepine is a medicine that belongs to a group of drugs called anticonvulsants. It is mainly used to treat epilepsy, a condition that causes seizures or fits. It can also be used to treat nerve pain caused by diabetes or a condition of the face called trigeminal neuralgia. In some cases, it can also be used to treat bipolar disorder, a mental health condition that causes mood swings. It works by reducing the activity of nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord that are involved in producing and transmitting pain signals or abnormal electrical impulses. It can help prevent seizures, reduce nerve pain and stabilize mood. It is available as tablets, modified-release tablets, oral suspension and suppositories. Furthermore, it is usually taken 2 to 4 times a day, depending on the dose and the form of the medicine. The dose of carbamazepine may vary depending on the condition being treated, the response to the medicine and other factors. It is important to follow the instructions given by the doctor or pharmacist when taking carbamazepine . Carbamazepine can cause side effects such as drowsiness, dizziness, headache, nausea, vomiting, rash, liver problems and blood disorders. Some of these side effects can be serious and require medical attention. Carbamazepine can also interact with other medicines and herbal supplements, so it is important to tell the doctor or pharmacist about all the medicines and supplements that are being taken before starting carbamazepine. Carbamazepine is not suitable for everyone. It should not be taken by people who have certain conditions such as acute porphyria, heart problems or blood disorders. It should also be avoided by people who are allergic to carbamazepine or any of its ingredients. Carbamazepine can affect pregnancy and breastfeeding, so it is important to consult the doctor before taking carbamazepine if pregnant or breastfeeding. Carbamazepine is a medicine that can help treat epilepsy, nerve pain and bipolar disorder, but it can also cause side effects and interactions. It is important to take carbamazepine as prescribed and follow the advice of the doctor or pharmacist when using it.

Cardiometabolic disease is a group of interconnected, often preventable conditions, including obesity, type 2 diabetes, high blood pressure, high cholesterol, fatty liver, heart attack, and stroke, all stemming from shared metabolic problems, with insulin resistance and inflammation at the core, leading to major cardiovascular complications and being the leading cause of death globally. These diseases develop silently, driven by lifestyle factors like poor diet, inactivity, smoking, and obesity, requiring integrated care to manage the underlying issues.

Cardiovascular regulation is the body's multi-system process for controlling blood flow, heart rate, and blood pressure to match changing metabolic demands and maintain stable organ perfusion. It relies on fast neural reflexes, slower hormonal pathways, and local tissue autoregulation operating through core principles explored in Cardiovascular System Physiology.

Care in psychology is a broad term that encompasses various aspects of providing support and treatment to people with mental health needs. It can be delivered in different settings, such as primary care, community services, hospitals, or specialist units. Care in psychology can also involve different levels of intensity and duration, depending on the needs and preferences of the individual. One of the key principles of care in psychology is to adopt a person-centred approach, which means working together with the individual to plan their care and support based on their unique goals, values, and strengths. Person-centred care helps the individual to make choices, assess and take risks, and understand the consequences of their decisions. Care in psychology can also benefit from integrating mental health with physical health, social care, and other relevant sectors, to provide a holistic and comprehensive service that addresses the mind and body link. Care in psychology can help to improve the quality of life, wellbeing, and recovery of people with mental health needs.

Carl Rogers was an American psychologist who pioneered the humanistic approach and the client-centred therapy. He believed that people have the potential to grow and self-actualize in a supportive environment. He was one of the most influential psychotherapists of the 20th century.

Chemical messengers – Tiny chemicals (like hormones) that carry signals between different parts of the body so they know what to do.

Chromosomes are thread-like structures in cell nuclei made of DNA wrapped tightly around proteins. They carry genetic blueprints from parent to child. Humans normally have 46 chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs, with half inherited from each biological parent.

A chronotype is a term that describes the natural tendency of a person to sleep and wake up at certain times of the day. It is influenced by genetic, environmental and social factors. Different chronotypes have different preferences for when they feel most alert, productive and energetic. Some common chronotypes are morning larks, night owls and intermediate types.

Chyme is the pulpy acidic fluid which passes from the stomach to the small intestine, consisting of gastric juices and partly digested food.

Clairvoyance is the claimed psychic ability to gain information about an object, person, location, or physical event through extrasensory perception. It can also mean the power or faculty of discerning objects or matters not present to the senses. Some people believe in clairvoyance and use it to predict the future or to see things that others cannot see.

Classical conditioning is a type of learning where a person or animal pairs a neutral signal with a natural, automatic reflex. Over time, this connection makes the neutral signal trigger the reflex on its own. This idea was famously studied by Ivan Pavlov using dogs.

Co-creating is the stage of prototyping and implementing the new ideas and solutions that emerge from the co-presencing stage. This stage involves testing, learning and iterating the prototypes in real-world settings, as well as engaging in dialogue and feedback with the stakeholders and beneficiaries.

Co-initiating is the stage of building a core group of stakeholders who share a common intention and commitment to the transformation process. This stage involves clarifying the driving question, identifying the key players and inviting them to join the journey.

Co-presencing is the stage of connecting to the source of inspiration and creativity that lies within oneself and the collective. This stage involves letting go of old assumptions, judgments and habits, and opening up to new possibilities and potentialities.

Co-sensing is a term that refers to the process of collectively sensing and tuning in to the emerging future of an organisation. It involves listening deeply to oneself, others, and the system as a whole, and suspending one's judgments and assumptions. Co-sensing is a key element of organisational transcendental transformation, which is the shift from egocentric to eco-centric awareness and action. By co-sensing, organisations can tap into the creative potential of their members and stakeholders, and co-create solutions that are aligned with their higher purpose and vision.

Cognitive psychology is a branch of psychology that studies the mental processes involved in perception, attention, memory, reasoning, problem-solving, decision-making, and language. Cognitive psychologists use experimental methods to investigate how humans and other animals acquire, process, store, and use information. Cognitive psychology also examines how these mental processes interact with emotions, motivation, and social context.

Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) is a type of psychotherapy that helps people change their thoughts and behaviours that are causing them distress. CBT is based on the idea that our thoughts, emotions and actions are interconnected and influence each other. By identifying and challenging negative or irrational thoughts, CBT can help people cope with various psychological problems, such as anxiety, depression, phobias and addiction.

Cognitive dissonance is a psychological phenomenon that occurs when a person holds two or more contradictory beliefs, attitudes, or values at the same time. This causes mental discomfort and motivates the person to reduce the inconsistency by changing their beliefs, attitudes, or values, or by rationalizing or avoiding the conflicting information.

Cognitive distortions are irrational or exaggerated thoughts that affect how we feel and behave. They can lead to negative emotions, such as anxiety, anger, or depression. Some common examples of cognitive distortions are: all-or-nothing thinking, overgeneralizing, filtering, disqualifying the positive, jumping to conclusions, magnifying or minimizing, emotional reasoning, should statements, labelling, and personalization.

Cognitively demanding suppression refers to the effortful mental control required to block unwanted thoughts, memories, or perceptual distractors. This process relies on active executive functions in the brain, such as prefrontal cortex regulation, but often triggers paradoxical rebound effects when mental resources run low

Coherence is a term that refers to the meaningful interconnections between distinct psychological entities, such as thoughts, beliefs, feelings, and behaviours. For example, a person who has a coherent system of beliefs would not have any logical contradictions or inconsistencies among them. Coherence can also be applied to other aspects of psychology, such as the correlation between energy waves, the influence of background on imagery, and the resolution of emotional conflicts.

A collective phenomenal field is an extension of Phenomenal field theory that describes a shared, interactive space of lived, conscious experience. Rather than looking at an individual's private inner world, it explores how people in groups co-create a unified field of emotion, meaning, and embodied action.

The collective unconscious is a concept proposed by psychiatrist Carl Jung to describe a form of the unconscious mind that is common to all human beings and originates from the inherited structure of the brain. The collective unconscious contains archetypes, which are universal symbols and patterns of thinking that influence our perceptions, emotions, and behaviours. Jung believed that the collective unconscious is not shaped by personal experience, but by the ancestral experience of humanity.

In biology, a colony is a group of individual organisms of the same species living closely together, often connected physically or working cooperatively. These biological associations represent a key evolutionary step from single-celled life toward complex multicellular organisms.

Compartmentalisation confusion: the erroneous attribution of the behaviour, information, intention or consequences of one active schema process to a broader containing schema, sibling schemas, a high-level interface, the ego-model or the self as a whole because awareness lacks sufficient causal resolution.

Compassion is a term that refers to the feeling of wanting to help someone who is suffering. Compassion is not the same as empathy or sympathy, although it involves both. Empathy is the ability to understand another person's emotions, while sympathy is the feeling of regret for another person's suffering. Compassion goes beyond these feelings and motivates us to take action to relieve the suffering of others. Compassion is important for psychology because it can improve our well-being, our relationships, and our society.

Compassionate in psychology means having the ability to feel empathy for others and the desire to help them. It is a quality that involves being mindful of other people's emotions, thoughts, and experiences, and taking action to relieve their suffering. Compassion is not only beneficial for others, but also for oneself, as it can improve well-being, happiness, and resilience.

Complex systems theory is an interdisciplinary scientific framework studying how large networks of interacting, non-linear, and adaptable components give rise to collective behaviors, patterns, and emergence that cannot be predicted by looking at individual parts alone. Key concepts include emergence, nonlinearity, and self-organization.

Complex trauma is a term that describes the psychological effects of exposure to multiple and prolonged traumatic events, especially during childhood or adolescence. Complex trauma can impair a person's sense of identity, emotion regulation, interpersonal relationships, and cognitive functioning.

Confirmation bias: We seek out and interpret information that confirms our existing beliefs and opinions. For example, we might only read news sources that align with our political views and ignore those that challenge them.

Conformity: Where we consciously or unconsciously adopt the behaviour of others to fit in, gain approval, or avoid conflict.

Confused thinking is a term that refers to a state of mental disorganization or impaired cognition. It can manifest as difficulty concentrating, remembering, reasoning, or making decisions. Confused thinking can have various causes, such as stress, fatigue, illness, medication, substance use, or psychological disorders. Confused thinking can affect one's daily functioning and quality of life, and may require professional help if it persists or interferes with normal activities.

Confusion is a state of mind in which a person is unable to think clearly or understand something. Confusion can be caused by various factors, such as stress, fatigue, illness, medication, or lack of information. It can affect one's memory, judgment, perception, and emotions. Confusion can be temporary or chronic, depending on the underlying cause and severity.

Connection in psychology refers to the bond or relationship that exists between individuals or groups. Connection can have positive effects on mental health, well-being, and social functioning. Connection can also facilitate learning, empathy, and cooperation. Some factors that influence connection are trust, communication, similarity, and reciprocity.

Connections in psychology refers to the bonds or relationships that exist between individuals or groups. Connection can have positive effects on mental health, well-being, and social functioning. Connection can also facilitate learning, empathy, and cooperation. Some factors that influence connection are trust, communication, similarity, and reciprocity.

Conscious awareness is the subjective, active experience of perceiving your internal thoughts, feelings, and the external world around you. It is the fundamental state of knowing you exist and actively processing what you see, feel, or experience at any given moment

Conscious awareness is the subjective, active experience of perceiving internal thoughts, emotions, and external surroundings. It is the fundamental state of knowing you exist and recognizing what is happening inside your mind and in the world around you. Your individual conscious awareness operates through three distinct brain networks

The conscious examination of one's experiences and responses is known as self-reflection or introspection. It involves looking inward to evaluate your thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and motivations. This practice helps you understand yourself better, learn from the past, and make better choices in the future

Contextual factors in psychology are the variables that influence human behaviour and cognition in different situations and environments. They include social, cultural, physical, emotional, and temporal aspects of the context. Contextual factors can affect how people perceive, interpret, remember, and respond to stimuli and events.

Contingency awareness is the explicit, conscious recognition of the relationship between events - such as knowing that a specific action causes an outcome, or that a cue predicts an upcoming stimulus. In psychology, it marks the bridge between automatic conditioning and conscious expectation

A contingent approval is a status where a request, loan, or agreement is accepted, but only on the condition that specific rules or tasks are met. If those tasks are not done, the approval can be taken away

Cortisol is a hormone that regulates various processes in the body, such as metabolism, immune response, and stress. It is produced by the adrenal glands and released into the bloodstream. Cortisol helps the body cope with challenges and threats by increasing blood sugar, blood pressure, and inflammation. However, too much or too little cortisol can cause health problems, such as diabetes, obesity, depression, and anxiety.

Cosmopsychism is the thesis that the cosmos as a whole displays psychological properties, cosmopsychological properties as we might call them,

Counselling is a form of psychological intervention that aims to help people cope with various personal, interpersonal, or situational problems. Counselling involves a collaborative relationship between a counsellor and a client, in which the counsellor provides a supportive and non-judgmental environment for the client to explore and resolve their issues. It can be delivered in different modalities, such as individual, group, family, or online. Counselling can also be based on different theoretical approaches, such as cognitive-behavioural, humanistic, psychodynamic, or integrative.

A qubit (short for quantum bit, often spelled "cubit") is the basic unit of information in quantum computing and quantum math. Unlike a normal computer bit that is always a clear 0 or 1, a qubit can be in a mix of both states at the same time. This mix is called a superposition.

Cybernetics is the interdisciplinary study of control, communication, and feedback loops in both living organisms and machines. Coined in 1948 by mathematician Norbert Wiener, the term comes from the Greek word for a steersman or pilot. It explores how systems self-regulate, adapt, and maintain stability.

Cytokines are small proteins that play a key role in regulating the immune system. They are produced by various types of cells and act as messengers between them. Cytokines can have different effects depending on the context, such as stimulating or inhibiting inflammation, promoting or suppressing cell growth, and enhancing or impairing wound healing.

Cytokines are small proteins that act as chemical messengers, orchestrating cell-to-cell communication, especially within the immune system, to regulate inflammation, immune responses, cell growth, and differentiation, helping fight infections but also contributing to diseases like autoimmune disorders when overproduced. They are crucial for activating immune cells, directing them to threats, and resolving inflammation once an infection clears.

A deeper level of consciousness is a state of "elevated awareness and perception" that allows individuals to develop a "deeper understanding of the nature of reality". These states move the mind beyond self-interest and craving. A deeper level of consciousness is different from the normal waking state, where the mind is often distracted and reactive. A deeper level of consciousness can be achieved through various practices, such as meditation, mindfulness, and contemplation.

The default mode network (DMN) is a large-scale brain network that consists of several brain regions, such as the dorsal medial prefrontal cortex, the posterior cingulate cortex / precuneus and the angular gyrus. The DMN is active when a person is not focused on the external world, but rather on their own thoughts and feelings. The DMN is involved in various cognitive functions, such as daydreaming, reminiscing, future planning, and self-referential processing. The DMN is sometimes contrasted with the task-positive network, which is active when a person is engaged in a specific goal-oriented task. However, the DMN can also be active during some external tasks that require conceptual thinking or social cognition. The DMN is thought to reflect the idiosyncratic self of a person, as well as their shared social and cultural knowledge.

The Defensive Activation Theory (DAT) is a scientific hypothesis proposing that the biological purpose of REM sleep and dreaming is to periodically stimulate the visual system. By actively firing signals into the idle visual cortex during sleep, the brain prevents neighbouring sensory areas from taking over that neural tissue

Defensive immobility is an involuntary survival response. The body shuts down movement when fight or flight fail during extreme danger. It includes freezing, tonic immobility (paralysis), and collapse immobility. This automatic reaction is linked to trauma and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

Defensive preparation involves setting up tactical plans, physical positioning, and resource management to protect a position, team, or character against an incoming threat or attack. It spans sports strategies, military manoeuvres, business and video game planning.

Defensive responding is a protective reaction to perceived criticism, shame, or threat. Instead of listening, a person counterattacks, makes excuses, or shifts blame. This behaviour harms relationships, blocks problem-solving, and escalates conflict

Delusional beliefs are false or irrational beliefs that persist despite evidence to the contrary. They are often associated with psychotic disorders, such as schizophrenia, but can also occur in other mental health conditions, such as bipolar disorder or dementia. Delusional beliefs can impair a person's ability to function and relate to others, and may cause distress or harm to themselves or others. Psychological theories suggest that delusional beliefs may result from cognitive biases, emotional disturbances, impaired reality testing, or abnormal brain activity.

Delusions are false beliefs that persist despite evidence to the contrary. They can affect anyone, but are more common in people with mental health conditions such as schizophrenia or bipolar disorder. Delusions can interfere with a person's ability to function in daily life and may cause distress or harm to themselves or others.

Dementia is a general term for a decline in mental abilities that affects daily life. It can cause problems with memory, thinking, language, judgment, and behaviour. Dementia is not a normal part of ageing. It is caused by damage to brain cells from various diseases or injuries.

Depression is a psychological condition that affects a person's mood, thoughts, and behavior. It is characterized by persistent feelings of sadness, hopelessness, guilt, and low self-esteem, as well as a loss of interest or pleasure in activities that used to be enjoyable. Depression can also cause physical symptoms such as fatigue, insomnia, appetite changes, and pain. Depression can interfere with a person's ability to function at work, school, or in social situations. Depression can have various causes, such as stressful life events, negative thinking patterns, genetic factors, or biochemical imbalances in the brain. Depression can be treated with psychotherapy, medication, or other interventions that help the person cope with their emotions and change their negative thoughts and behaviours.

Deterministic is an adjective that describes a belief or a system that follows the doctrine of determinism. Determinism is the philosophical and scientific thesis that all events, including human decisions and actions, are causally inevitable and follow natural laws. According to determinism, there is no free will, and humans cannot act or decide otherwise than they actually do.

Diabetes – A condition where the body struggles to control blood sugar levels properly, often because of problems with insulin.

Dialogical Self Theory (DST) views the human mind not as a single fixed ego, but as a "society of mind". Created by psychologist Hubert Hermans and others, it states that our personality contains many shifting "I-positions" that talk, argue, and agree with each other like characters in a story

Differentiation in psychology can refer to different concepts depending on the context. It can mean the ability to balance autonomy and attachment, and to separate oneself from destructive influences. It can also mean the branch of psychology that studies individual and group differences in behaviour along a continuous scale. Additionally, it can mean the developmental process when a skill becomes more sophisticated and broken into subsets. Finally, it can mean the fundamental tenet of differential psychology that individual differences are worthy of study in their own right.

In mathematics, differentiation is the method of finding the derivative, or rate of change, of a function. In general English, it means telling things apart or making them distinct. In business or biology, it describes how products, cells, or systems become unique or specialized.

The word differentiation means finding the difference between things, or making things distinct. Depending on the subject, it has three major meanings: calculating a derivative in math, making cells specialized in biology, or making a product unique in business

Digestive juices are fluids secreted by glands in your mouth, stomach, pancreas, liver, and small intestine, containing water, enzymes (like amylase, protease, lipase), and acids that chemically break down food into nutrients your body can absorb for energy, repair, and growth. Key juices include saliva (starts starch digestion), gastric juice (protein breakdown), bile (fats), pancreatic juice (carbs, fats, proteins), and intestinal juice (further nutrient breakdown).

Discernment is the ability to judge well, see what is hidden, and tell the difference between truth and falsehood or right and wrong. It goes beyond simple basic choices. It means having deep insight and clear understanding when things are complex

Disordered eating sits on a spectrum between normal eating and an eating disorder and may include symptoms and behaviours of eating disorders, but at a lesser frequency or lower level of severity. Disordered eating may include restrictive eating, compulsive eating, or irregular or inflexible eating patterns.

Disorganized thinking is a mental state in which a person has trouble organizing their thoughts and expressing them clearly. It can affect their ability to communicate, reason, and make decisions. Disorganized thinking can be a symptom of various mental disorders, such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, or dementia.

Dissociation is a psychological phenomenon that involves a disruption in the normal integration of consciousness, memory, identity, emotion, perception, body representation, motor control, and behaviour. Dissociation can occur in response to stress, trauma, or other overwhelming experiences. It can range from mild detachment to severe dissociative disorders.

Dissociative amnesia is a mental disorder that causes a person to forget important personal information, such as their identity, history, or trauma. It is different from normal forgetfulness or memory loss due to ageing or disease. Dissociative amnesia is often triggered by a stressful or traumatic event that overwhelms the person's ability to cope. Dissociative amnesia can affect a person's sense of self, relationships, and daily functioning.

Distractibility is the tendency to lose focus on a task or activity due to external or internal stimuli. It can affect one's productivity, performance, and quality of work. Distractibility can be caused by various factors, such as stress, boredom, fatigue, anxiety, or personal issues. Some strategies to reduce distractibility include setting clear goals, minimizing distractions, taking breaks, and using positive reinforcement.

Diversity in psychology refers to the recognition and appreciation of the differences among people in terms of their race, ethnicity, culture, gender, sexuality, age, ability, and other factors that shape their identities and experiences. Diversity in psychology also involves challenging the biases, stereotypes, and discrimination that create barriers to inclusion and equity for individuals and groups. It is important for both research and practice, as it can foster innovation, problem-solving, and cultural competence. By diversifying the pool of psychologists and the populations they serve, psychology can better address the needs and strengths of diverse communities and contribute to social justice.

In spirituality, the divine plan is the order of the universe eternally in the mind of God, foreseeing each of his creatures, their diversity and hierarchy, activity and interrelationship, and how they serve their respective purpose in accordance with the divine will. It is also the way God intervenes in human affairs to accomplish his purposes, sometimes through miraculous events that defy natural explanations. The divine plan reveals God's love, wisdom and power, and invites humans to trust him and cooperate with him.

In spirituality, source is a term that refers to the origin and essence of all that exists. It is also known as God, the Creator, the Divine, or the Higher Power. Source is the ultimate reality and truth of who we are as spiritual beings. Source is what connects us to ourselves, to each other, and to the universe. Source is the source of love, wisdom, and guidance that we can access through our intuition, meditation, prayer, or other spiritual practices. Source is not limited by any religion, dogma, or doctrine. Source is infinite, eternal, and unconditional.

Domain specificity is a concept in cognitive science and psychology stating that certain parts of the mind or brain are specialized to handle only specific types of information, such as language, faces, or numbers, rather than using a single all-purpose learning system

In cognitive science, psychology, and computer design, a domain-specific structure means a system, module, or architecture is tailored to handle one specific type of task or information rather than general tasks

Dopamine is a neurotransmitter and a hormone that plays a role in many body and brain functions. It is involved in movement, memory, motivation, mood, attention, and more. It also gives you a sense of pleasure and reward when you do something enjoyable. Dopamine levels can affect your health and behaviour.

Dr. Ellen Frank is a distinguished professor of psychiatry and psychology at the University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine. She is an internationally recognized expert in mood disorders and their treatment. She has published over 500 peer-reviewed articles and several books on this topic. She is also the director of the Depression and Manic Depression Prevention Program at Western Psychiatric Institute and Clinic.

Early relational trauma is a term that describes the chronic exposure of young children to experiences of maltreatment and neglect within the parent–child relationship. Such trauma can have a negative impact on children's mentalizing capacity and play, which are essential for their psychosocial development. Mentalizing is the ability to understand one's own and others' thoughts, feelings and intentions, while play is the ability to use imagination and creativity to explore reality. Early relational trauma can impair these abilities by disrupting the children's sense of self, security, trust and emotion regulation.

Eckhart Tolle is a spiritual teacher and author who claims to have achieved a state of transcendence after a profound inner transformation. He describes his experience as a dissolution of the ego and a realization of the true self. According to Tolle, he achieved transcendence by becoming aware of the present moment and detaching himself from the thoughts and emotions that create suffering.

He says that transcendence is not a goal to be attained, but a natural state of being that is accessible to anyone who is willing to surrender to the now. Tolle teaches that transcendence is not dependent on any external factors, such as beliefs, practices, or circumstances, but on the inner attitude of acceptance and openness. He also emphasizes that transcendence is not a permanent state, but a dynamic and ongoing process that requires constant vigilance and awareness.

Ego is a term that has different meanings in different contexts. In psychology, ego is usually used to refer to the part of the personality that mediates between the id, the instinctive and unconscious part of the mind, and the superego, the moral and social part of the mind. The ego is responsible for perceiving, reasoning, planning, and acting in the external world. The ego is also influenced by the pleasure principle, which seeks immediate gratification of impulses, and the reality principle, which adapts to the demands of reality. The ego is often seen as a source of self-justification and self-enhancement, as well as a potential cause of conflict and anxiety.

Ego attachment is a term used in psychology to describe the tendency of the ego to cling to certain beliefs, identities, values, or interests that define one's sense of self. The ego is the part of personality that mediates between the instinctual impulses of the id and the moral demands of the superego. The ego also helps us adapt to reality and cope with challenges. Ego attachment can be seen as a way of protecting and enhancing one's ego, but it can also limit one's growth and happiness. Ego attachment can make us rigid, defensive, and resistant to change. It can also cause us to suffer when we lose or fail to attain what we are attached to. Ego attachment can manifest in different domains, such as intellectual, emotional, physical, social, or spiritual. For example, one might be attached to one's intelligence, feelings, appearance, status, or beliefs. Ego psychology is a branch of psychology that focuses on the development and functioning of the ego. Ego psychology might emphasize why you should understand and harness your inner resources rather than relying on external sources. By focusing on personal growth and development, you might empower yourself to become stronger and more confident. To overcome ego attachment, one might need to examine and challenge one's assumptions and expectations, and learn to accept and appreciate oneself and others as they are. One might also need to cultivate a sense of detachment and equanimity, and recognize that everything is impermanent and interdependent.

Ego attachment is a term used in psychology to describe the tendency of the ego to cling to certain beliefs, identities, values, or interests that define one's sense of self. The ego is the part of personality that mediates between the instinctual impulses of the id and the moral demands of the superego. The ego also helps us adapt to reality and cope with challenges. Ego attachment can be seen as a way of protecting and enhancing one's ego, but it can also limit one's growth and happiness. Ego attachment can make us rigid, defensive, and resistant to change. It can also cause us to suffer when we lose or fail to attain what we are attached to. Ego attachment can manifest in different domains, such as intellectual, emotional, physical, social, or spiritual. For example, one might be attached to one's intelligence, feelings, appearance, status, or beliefs. Ego psychology is a branch of psychology that focuses on the development and functioning of the ego. Ego psychology might emphasize why you should understand and harness your inner resources rather than relying on external sources. By focusing on personal growth and development, you might empower yourself to become stronger and more confident. To overcome ego attachment, one might need to examine and challenge one's assumptions and expectations, and learn to accept and appreciate oneself and others as they are. One might also need to cultivate a sense of detachment and equanimity, and recognize that everything is impermanent and interdependent.

Ego-involvement is a concept in psychology that refers to the degree to which a person perceives a task or an issue as relevant to their self-esteem. It is assumed that ego-involvement influences the strength of one's attitude towards the task or the issue. For example, a person who is highly ego-involved in their political beliefs may have stronger and more resistant attitudes than someone who is less ego-involved. Ego-involvement can also affect how people process information and respond to persuasion attempts.

Near-egoism is a term used in psychology to describe a personality trait that involves a strong tendency to justify one's own actions and beliefs, regardless of their validity or consequences. Near-egoists are often self-centred, narcissistic, and defensive, and they may rationalize their failures or mistakes by blaming others or external factors. Near-egoism can be seen as a way of protecting one's self-esteem and maintaining a consistent, positive image of oneself in the face of reality. However, near-egoism can also lead to conflicts, denial, and distorted perceptions of reality, as well as difficulties in forming healthy relationships with others.

An egregore is a non-physical entity or thought-form that comes alive from the shared thoughts, feelings, and beliefs of a group of people. Once formed, it acts on its own and can influence the behaviour of the group, existing like a collective mind or "spirit of a group"

An eigenbasis is a special set of basis vectors made entirely of eigenvectors for a linear transformation or matrix. When you use an eigenbasis, the matrix representing that linear transformation becomes a simple diagonal matrix where the entries are just the eigenvalues. Not all matrices have an eigenbasis

Eleanor Longden overcame her schizophrenia by learning to accept and communicate with her voices. She also received support from professionals and peers who helped her cope with her condition. She now advocates for a more compassionate and holistic approach to mental health.

Eleanor Roosevelt was a prominent American political figure, diplomat and activist. She was the wife of Franklin D. Roosevelt, the 32nd President of the United States, and served as the first lady from 1933 to 1945. She was also a niece of Theodore Roosevelt, the 26th President of the United States. She played a key role in advancing human and women's rights, both nationally and internationally. She was the first U.S. delegate to the United Nations and the first chair of the UN Commission on Human Rights. She also wrote a syndicated column called "My Day" and held press conferences to communicate with the public.

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is a psychiatric treatment that involves applying an electric current to the brain under general anesthesia, causing a controlled seizure. The purpose of ECT is to improve the symptoms of some severe mental health conditions, such as depression, mania or catatonia, when other treatments have not worked. ECT is not a cure, but it can provide short-term relief for some people. ECT is a controversial treatment because it is not fully understood how it works, and it can have side effects such as memory loss.

Elizabeth Gilbert is a bestselling author who has shared her journey of creative living with millions of readers. In her memoir Eat, Pray, Love, she describes how she achieved transcendence by exploring three different aspects of her nature: pleasure, devotion, and balance. She travelled to Italy, India, and Bali, where she learned to enjoy the sensual delights of food, art, and language; to practice meditation and yoga with devotion; and to find a balance between worldly enjoyment and divine transcendence. Through her experiences, she discovered a deeper connection with herself, her creativity, and the universe.

Elyn Saks is a law professor and a mental health advocate who has schizophrenia. She overcame her schizophrenia by seeking treatment, taking medication, undergoing psychoanalysis, and having supportive friends and family. She also wrote a memoir and gave a TED talk about her experience with the disorder. She is an inspiration for many people who struggle with mental illness.

Emotional consequences are the psychological and behavioural outcomes that follow stress, trauma, loss, or major life changes

Emotional distress is a term that describes the psychological suffering caused by a traumatic event or situation. It can include feelings of anxiety, depression, anger, guilt, shame, or fear. Emotional distress can affect a person's mental and physical health, as well as their relationships and daily functioning.

Emotional instability is a condition that affects a person's mood, thoughts and behaviour. It can cause frequent and intense changes in emotions, such as anger, sadness, anxiety or happiness. Emotional instability can interfere with a person's relationships, work and well-being. It can also increase the risk of developing mental health problems, such as depression, bipolar disorder or borderline personality disorder.

Emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive, understand, manage and use emotions in oneself and others. It involves four main skills: self-awareness, self-regulation, social awareness and relationship management. Psychologists consider emotional intelligence as a form of social intelligence that can enhance one's mental health, well-being and performance.

Emotional numbing is a coping mechanism that some people use to avoid or reduce negative feelings. It involves shutting down or disconnecting from one's emotions, often as a result of trauma, stress, or fear. Emotional numbing can have negative consequences, such as difficulty forming relationships, low self-esteem, and reduced quality of life. It can also occur as a side effect from medication.

Emotional processing is the ability to identify, understand, and manage one's own emotions and the emotions of others. It involves recognizing the causes and effects of emotions, expressing them appropriately, and regulating them to achieve one's goals. Emotional processing is essential for mental health, well-being, and interpersonal relationships.

Emotional regulation is a skill that involves managing your own emotions in different situations. It can help people cope with stress, improve their well-being, and achieve their goals.

The endocrine system is a network of glands (like thyroid, pituitary, adrenals, pancreas) that produce and release hormones directly into the bloodstream to act as chemical messengers, controlling vital functions like metabolism, growth, mood, reproduction, and stress response by regulating distant organs and cells. It works with the nervous system to maintain bodily balance (homeostasis), with major glands forming glands like the hypothalamus linking the two systems.

Endophenotypes are measurable traits or characteristics that are related to a complex disorder, such as schizophrenia or autism. Endophenotypes are not directly observable by others, but they can be detected by biological tests, such as brain imaging or genetic analysis. These are useful for researchers who want to understand the causes and mechanisms of complex disorders, because they can help identify the genes and environmental factors that contribute to the disorder.

Endophenotypes can also help clinicians who want to diagnose and treat complex disorders, because they can provide more specific and objective information than behavioural symptoms alone.

Endorphins are natural chemicals produced by the body that help to reduce pain and stress. They are also involved in positive emotions such as happiness and euphoria. Endorphins are released when a person engages in physical activity, social interaction, or other pleasurable experiences.

Endothelium is a type of tissue that lines the inner surface of blood vessels and other organs. It is composed of thin, flat cells that form a barrier between the blood and the surrounding tissues. Endothelium has various functions, such as regulating blood pressure, preventing blood clotting, and modulating inflammation.

According to Bohm, a process of enfoldment is a way of describing how the implicate order, a deeper and more fundamental order of reality, manifests itself in the explicate order, the observable and measurable order of phenomena. In this process, the implicate order is constantly and dynamically enfolding and unfolding into itself, creating the appearance of a multidimensional and interconnected reality. Bohm calls this process the holomovement, which implies that reality is not static but fluid and ever-changing.

Enlightened: the attainment of insight and wisdom through self-knowledge, reflection, and contemplation, and the expression of creativity and compassion.

An entangled particle is a particle that is part of a group of particles whose quantum states are interdependent, regardless of their spatial separation. This means that measuring the properties of one particle will affect the properties of the other particles in the group, even if they are far apart.

Environmental incongruence: a circumstance in which an otherwise available response conflicts with another high-priority environmental requirement.

Essentialism is a concept with primary meanings in Philosophy and Personal Development: the view that objects or ideas possess unchanging, inherent core properties, or the disciplined practice of focusing strictly on what matters most while eliminating non-essentials

Estrogen – A main sex hormone that helps control the menstrual cycle and supports breast, bone, and reproductive health, especially in women.

Eugen Bleuler was a Swiss psychiatrist and humanist who made significant contributions to the understanding of mental illness. He coined the terms schizophrenia, schizoid, autism, and ambivalence. He was also influenced by Sigmund Freud and applied psychoanalytic methods to his research and treatment of psychotic patients.

Euphoria is a state of intense happiness and well-being that may be accompanied by feelings of confidence, creativity, and exhilaration. Euphoria can be induced by various factors, such as drugs, music, exercise, meditation, or love. It is not a disorder in itself, but it may be a symptom of some medical or psychological conditions.

The executive network in the brain is a large-scale network that is involved in high-level cognitive tasks, such as decision-making, problem-solving, working memory and goal-directed behaviour. The executive network consists of several regions in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and the posterior parietal cortex (PPC), which work together or in opposition with other brain networks. The executive network is also known as the central executive network (CEN) or the frontoparietal network. The executive network is essential for coordinating mental processes and actions in accordance with current goals and plans.

An existential crisis is a psychological state in which a person questions the meaning, purpose and value of their life. It can be triggered by various factors, such as a major life change, a loss of a loved one, a personal failure, or a confrontation with mortality. An existential crisis can cause feelings of anxiety, depression, loneliness, hopelessness and despair. It can also lead to a search for new sources of meaning and fulfilment, such as spirituality, creativity or social activism.

The existential dimension of spirituality refers to the human need to find meaning and purpose in life. It involves questions such as "Who am I?", "Why am I here?", and "What is my destiny?" Existential spirituality can be understood in psychological terms as a way of coping with the challenges and uncertainties of existence, such as death, suffering, and freedom. Existential spirituality can also foster a sense of belonging, transcendence, and hope in the face of adversity.

An experience-dependent self refers to the psychological and neurological concept that human identity, brain structures, and self-regulation skills are not fixed at birth. Instead, they are continuously shaped, built, and reorganized by individual life events, environmental interactions, and unique learning processes over time.

An explicate order is a framework for understanding reality that is based on the abstractions that humans normally perceive, such as space, time, and matter. It is contrasted with an implicate order, which is a deeper and more fundamental order of reality that transcends the conventional notions of space and time. The concept of explicate and implicate orders was coined by theoretical physicist David Bohm to explain the paradoxical behaviours of quantum phenomena.

Extreme tiredness – A level of tiredness that doesn’t match your activity and doesn’t improve much with rest.

Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) is a psychotherapy method that aims to help people heal from trauma and other distressing life experiences. The theory behind EMDR is based on the Adaptive Information Processing (AIP) model, which proposes that traumatic memories are stored differently than normal memories in the brain. Traumatic memories are not fully processed and integrated, and they remain isolated and disconnected from other memories. This causes them to be easily triggered by sensory cues, resulting in emotional distress and negative beliefs about oneself and the world.

A feedback loop is a process where the output of a system circles back to become the input. When a result influences the next action, the system can self-regulate, learn, or grow over time.

Feeling-toned complexes (from the German gefühlsbetonter Komplex) are groups of memories, ideas, and images clustered around an emotional core. Coined by Carl Jung, these autonomous psychic units function like separate sub-personalities. When triggered by a life event, they hijack normal ego control and drive sudden emotional reactions

Fertility – The natural ability to get pregnant or to help someone else get pregnant.

Fertility issues – Difficulties getting pregnant, even when trying regularly for some time.

The fight-or-flight response is a physiological reaction that prepares the body to either confront or escape a perceived threat. It is triggered by the release of hormones such as adrenaline, noradrenaline, and cortisol, which cause changes in the heart rate, blood pressure, breathing rate, and muscle tension. The fight-or-flight response is an adaptive mechanism that helps humans and animals survive in dangerous situations.

Flashbacks are involuntary and vivid memories of a traumatic event that can occur at any time. They can make a person feel like they are reliving the event, experiencing the same emotions and sensations as before. Flashbacks can be triggered by reminders of the trauma, such as sounds, smells, images, or situations. Flashbacks can interfere with a person's daily functioning and well-being, and may require professional help to cope with them.

A flow state is a psychological state in which a person is fully immersed and engaged in an activity that is challenging but achievable. The person experiences a sense of enjoyment, focus, control, and motivation. The person also loses track of time and self-consciousness, and feels a balance between their skills and the task demands. Flow states are associated with optimal performance and well-being.

Forgiveness is a psychological process that involves letting go of negative emotions and thoughts towards someone who has harmed or offended us. Forgiveness does not mean condoning or forgetting the wrongdoing, but rather accepting it and moving on. It can have positive effects on our mental and physical health, such as reducing stress, anger, depression, and blood pressure. Forgiveness can also improve our relationships and social functioning by enhancing trust, empathy, and cooperation.

A Fourier transform is an integral transform that converts a function into a form that describes the frequencies present in the original function. The output of the transform is a complex-valued function of frequency. The Fourier transform is useful for analysing periodic phenomena such as sound waves, musical chords, and heat transfer.

Psychological fragmentation is a state where a person's identity, memories, or thoughts split into disconnected parts instead of forming a single, whole self. It often happens as a defence mechanism against severe stress or trauma, causing emotional numbness, memory gaps, or sudden shifts in behavior

Framing effect: We are influenced by how information is presented to us, such as the wording, order, or context. For example, we might be more likely to buy a product if it is described as "90% fat-free" than if it is described as "10% fat".

The free rider problem is an economic issue where individuals benefit from a public good or service (like national defense or clean air) without paying for it, because it's hard to exclude non-payers. This leads to under-provision or non-provision of the good, as people have little incentive to contribute, hoping others will pay, resulting in market failure and unfair burden on contributors. It also appears in groups (like projects) when members don't do their fair share of work, leading to low productivity and dissatisfaction

Freud was a famous psychologist who founded psychoanalysis. He proposed that human behaviour is influenced by unconscious drives and conflicts. He also developed theories about the stages of psychosexual development and the structure of personality.

Gastric motility is the stomach's coordinated muscle movement that processes food, mixing it and propelling it into the small intestine (duodenum) for digestion, involving relaxation to accept food, peristaltic waves to churn and break it down into chyme, and controlled emptying. This automatic process is controlled by the enteric nervous system (ENS) and influenced by nerves from the brain, hormones, and the microbiome, ensuring food moves from mouth to anus.

Gastrin and ghrelin are stomach hormones with opposing roles in digestion and appetite: Gastrin stimulates stomach acid (gastric acid) and enzyme production, promoting digestion, while ghrelin ("the hunger hormone") stimulates appetite, promotes growth hormone release, and increases food intake, with levels rising during fasting and falling after meals. They interact, as gastrin can trigger ghrelin release, and both can synergistically increase acid secretion, but generally, high gastrin correlates with lower ghrelin, and vice-versa, influencing energy balance.

A genetic lineage refers to all descendants of a specific genetic sequence or a direct line of ancestry, tracing biological inheritance through DNA, often used in genealogy (family history) or evolutionary biology to map relationships and origins, distinct from a simple family tree by focusing on specific genetic markers like Y-DNA or mtDNA or patterns of DNA segments, revealing deeper ancestral connections. It tracks inherited genetic material (like a specific gene or chromosome segment) across generations, showing how mutations accumulate and differentiate descendants.

Genetic memory refers to the idea that ancestral experiences, like trauma or learned behaviours, can be passed down through DNA to influence subsequent generations' brains and behaviours, often via epigenetic changes (marks on DNA), not direct memory recall, but as predispositions, instincts, or heightened sensitivities, seen in animal studies showing inherited fear of smells or innate bird songs, though specific episodic memories aren't inherited, these mechanisms explain phenomena like phobias and innate talents.

Germs (or microbes) are tiny living organisms like bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protozoa, many of which are invisible to the naked eye and can cause illness by invading the body, consuming nutrients, and producing harmful toxins, though some are harmless or even helpful. They spread through air, surfaces, and direct contact, but frequent handwashing and hygiene practices are key to preventing their transmission.

A Global Organismic Domain (GOD) is a relational whole whose constituent parts participate in a shared organisation while retaining local functions, perspectives and degrees of autonomy.

Glucose is a simple sugar (a monosaccharide) and the body's main source of energy, providing fuel for cells, especially the brain, derived from food and regulated by insulin, with levels measured in the blood to monitor health, particularly for diabetes. It's crucial for bodily functions, but too much or too little can cause health issues like fatigue, thirst, or confusion, with excess stored as glycogen for later use.

Gnosticism is a term that refers to a diverse set of religious and philosophical movements that emerged in the first centuries CE. Gnostics claimed to have a special knowledge (gnosis) of the divine realm and the origin of the world. They often viewed the material world as a prison created by a flawed or evil deity, and sought liberation through spiritual practices and rituals.

Grandiosity is a psychological term that refers to an unrealistic sense of superiority or uniqueness. People who experience grandiosity may believe that they have special talents, abilities, or destinies that set them apart from others. They may also disregard the feelings, opinions, or achievements of others whom they consider inferior. Grandiosity can be a symptom of some mental health conditions, such as bipolar disorder, narcissistic personality disorder, or schizoaffective disorder. Grandiosity can affect one's relationships, self-esteem, and wellbeing.

Gratitude is a positive emotion that involves appreciating what one has and being thankful for it. It is often expressed by acknowledging and expressing gratitude to others who have helped or benefited us in some way. Gratitude can have various psychological benefits, such as enhancing well-being, happiness, optimism, social support, and prosocial behaviour.

Growth hormone – A hormone that helps children grow and in adults helps with muscle, bone strength, and tissue repair.

Gut hormones – Hormones made in the digestive system that help control hunger, fullness, and how the body handles food.

Hallucinations are sensory experiences that occur without any external stimulus. They can affect any of the five senses: vision, hearing, smell, taste, or touch. Hallucinations can be caused by various factors, such as mental disorders, drug use, sleep deprivation, or brain injury. Hallucinations are not the same as illusions, which are distorted perceptions of real objects or events.

Haloperidol is a medication that belongs to a class of drugs called antipsychotics. It is used to treat various mental disorders, such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and Tourette's syndrome. Haloperidol works by blocking the activity of dopamine, a chemical messenger in the brain that affects mood, thoughts, and behavior.

Harmonious is an adjective that describes something that is in agreement or harmonizing with other elements. For example, a harmonious colour scheme is one that uses colours that complement each other and create a pleasing effect. A harmonious relationship is one that is based on mutual respect and cooperation. A harmonious sound is one that blends well with other sounds and does not create discord.

Harmony is a concept that refers to the balance and compatibility between different elements or aspects of a system. In psychological terms, harmony can be understood as a state of well-being and satisfaction that results from the alignment of one's values, goals, actions and emotions. Harmony can also be seen as a positive interpersonal relationship that is based on mutual respect, trust and cooperation. Harmony can enhance one's mental health, happiness and productivity.

Healthier behaviours are actions that contribute to the well-being of oneself and others. They include habits such as eating a balanced diet, exercising regularly, getting enough sleep, managing stress, avoiding substance abuse, and practicing good hygiene. Healthier behaviours can prevent or reduce the risk of many chronic diseases and improve the quality of life.

Heartburn is a burning chest pain from stomach acid backing up into the esophagus (acid reflux), often after eating or lying down, with symptoms like a sour taste, bloating, burping, and coughing, triggered by fatty/spicy foods, smoking, stress, or being overweight. While occasional heartburn is common and manageable with lifestyle changes (diet, weight, smoking cessation) and antacids, frequent heartburn can signal GERD (Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease) and needs medical attention.

Herbert A. Simon earned an unparalleled reputation as a scientist and founding father of several of today's most important scientific domains. Simon's research interests were exceptional, extending from computer science and artificial intelligence to cognitive psychology, administration and economics.

Hierarchical organisation in nature is a nested system where smaller components combine to form larger, more complex structures. This multi-layered architecture spans from microscopic building blocks to the entire planet, balancing local efficiency with global stability. Opinions on social structures within nature are mixed, as some species form strict hierarchies while others rely purely on collaborative networks.

In spirituality, higher purpose is the idea that each individual has a unique and meaningful role to play in the universe. Higher purpose is not something that can be imposed or assigned by external forces, but rather something that emerges from within as one aligns with one's true nature and values. Higher purpose can inspire and motivate one to live authentically and compassionately, and to contribute positively to the world.

Higher reality is a concept that refers to a level of existence or awareness that transcends the ordinary physical or psychological reality. It is often associated with mystical, religious, or spiritual experiences that reveal a deeper meaning or purpose of life. In psychological terms, higher reality can be understood as a state of consciousness that involves a sense of connection, transcendence, and integration with a larger whole. Higher reality can also be seen as a potential source of inspiration, creativity, and wisdom for human development and well-being.

In quantum gravity, a higher-dimensional space is a mathematical concept that extends the notion of three-dimensional space to higher dimensions. A higher-dimensional space can have more than three spatial dimensions, such as four, five, or even infinite dimensions. One way to visualize a higher-dimensional space is to use analogies with lower-dimensional spaces. For example, a point is a zero-dimensional space, a line is a one-dimensional space, a plane is a two-dimensional space, and a cube is a three-dimensional space. A four-dimensional space can be thought of as a cube with an extra dimension, and so on. However, these analogies are only approximate and do not capture the full complexity of higher-dimensional spaces. Higher-dimensional spaces are useful in quantum gravity because they allow for more general and elegant descriptions of physical phenomena, such as gravity, string theory, and black holes.

A Hilbert phase space is a mathematical concept that combines the ideas of a Hilbert space and a phase space. A Hilbert space is a vector space with an inner product that allows us to define distances and angles between vectors. A phase space is a space where each point represents a possible state of a physical system. A Hilbert phase space, then, is a vector space where each vector represents a possible state of a quantum system, and the inner product provides us with information about the probabilities of different outcomes.

A Hilbert space is an abstract vector space that extends the geometry of ordinary Euclidean space (2D and 3D) into any number of dimensions, including infinite dimensions. It is defined mathematically as a complete inner product space, meaning you can measure lengths, angles, and limits without running into "gaps" or missing points

Hindsight bias: We tend to overestimate our ability to predict or explain an outcome after it has occurred. For example, we might think that we knew all along who would win an election or a sports game.

The hippocampal region, or hippocampal formation, is a major seahorse-shaped structure located deep inside the medial temporal lobe of the brain. It has two halves, with one in each hemisphere, and plays a vital role in turning short-term memory into long-term memory, as well as in spatial navigation

The hippocampus is a part of the brain that is involved in memory formation and spatial navigation. It is located in the medial temporal lobe, near the centre of the brain. The hippocampus has a curved shape that resembles a seahorse, which is why it is named after the Greek word for seahorse.

A holistic framework in psychology is an approach that considers the whole person, not just their symptoms or behaviours. It takes into account the physical, mental, emotional, social, spiritual and environmental aspects of human experience. A holistic framework aims to understand how these factors interact and influence each other, and how they affect the well-being and functioning of the individual. A holistic framework also recognizes the uniqueness and diversity of each person, and respects their values, beliefs and preferences.

A holistic framework in psychology is an approach that considers the whole person, not just their symptoms or behaviours. It takes into account the physical, mental, emotional, social, spiritual and environmental aspects of human experience. A holistic framework aims to understand how these factors interact and influence each other, and how they affect the well-being and functioning of the individual. A holistic framework also recognizes the uniqueness and diversity of each person, and respects their values, beliefs and preferences.

A hologram is a technique that records and reproduces a three-dimensional light field by using interference and diffraction of coherent light, such as a laser beam. A hologram can create an image that has depth, parallax and other properties of the original scene, without the need for a lens. A hologram is made by splitting a laser beam into two beams: one that illuminates the object and one that serves as a reference. The interference pattern between the two beams is recorded on a photographic film or other medium, and can be reconstructed by illuminating it with the reference beam again.

A holographic storage network is a system that uses holography to store and retrieve data in three dimensions. Holography is a technique that creates holograms, which are images that preserve the depth and perspective of the original objects. A holographic storage network splits a laser beam into two beams: a reference beam and a signal beam. The signal beam carries the data and passes through a device that modulates the light. The reference beam and the signal beam interfere with each other and create a hologram that is recorded on a storage medium. To read the data, the reference beam is shone on the medium and the hologram is reconstructed.

Holotropic is a term coined by psychiatrist Stanislav Grof to describe a state of consciousness that transcends the ordinary and allows access to deeper levels of insight, healing and creativity. Holotropic states can be induced by various methods, such as breathing techniques, music, meditation or psychedelic substances.

Homeostasis is the ability of living organisms to maintain a stable, relatively constant internal environment (like temperature, pH, water balance, blood sugar) despite changes in external conditions, ensuring cells and systems function optimally for survival. It's a dynamic process involving feedback loops, primarily negative feedback, where the body detects deviations and triggers responses (like sweating to cool down or shivering to warm up) to bring conditions back to a set range, preventing disease and maintaining life.

In biology, homeostasis is the self-regulating process by which living organisms maintain a stable, balanced internal environment (such as constant body temperature or blood sugar) despite changes in the outside world

Homeostatic accuracy refers to the precision with which a biological system maintains its internal environment within a specific, healthy range (set point) despite internal or external changes. This is a crucial concept in physiology, ensuring that variables like body temperature, blood sugar, or pH levels remain stable for survival.

A hormone is a substance that is produced by certain cells of the body and that travels through the bloodstream to affect other cells or organs. Hormones act as chemical messengers that regulate various physiological processes, such as growth, metabolism, reproduction, and mood. Hormones can be made of proteins, amino acids, steroids, or other organic compounds. Some examples of hormones are insulin, thyroxine, cortisol, estrogen, and testosterone.

Human brain-imaging uses non-invasive tools like Functional MRI (fMRI), CT scans, and PET scans to map brain structure and activity. These methods help doctors diagnose injuries, tumours, and diseases, while letting scientists study how we think, feel, and move

Human flourishing is a term used in positive psychology to describe a state of optimal well-being and functioning. According to one definition, flourishing is "when people experience positive emotions, positive psychological functioning, and positive social functioning, most of the time." That means that flourishing encompasses many feelings, activities, and thoughts that make people feel happy and complete. Some of the components of flourishing include positive emotions, mental and physical health, meaning and purpose in life, close relationships, and often virtues like wisdom, courage, and kindness. Flourishing is not only beneficial for individuals, but also for organizations and societies, as it can enhance productivity, creativity, resilience, and social cohesion.

Human reasoning is the cognitive process of drawing conclusions, solving problems, and making decisions. Rather than strictly following formal mathematical logic, people build mental models of situations, use intuitive heuristics, and update probabilistic beliefs based on experience

Humility is a virtue that involves having a modest and realistic view of oneself and one's abilities. Humility does not mean being self-deprecating or feeling inferior, but rather being aware of one's strengths and weaknesses, and respecting others for their qualities. It helps us to learn from our mistakes, to appreciate feedback, and to cooperate with others. Humility also enables us to acknowledge the limits of our knowledge and to seek truth with openness and curiosity.

Hunger pangs are a natural physiological response to an empty stomach, characterized by a gnawing feeling, rumbling, or painful contractions in the abdomen. They are signals from the body to the brain that it needs nutrients or energy.

Hyper-arousal is a state of increased psychological and physiological tension. It is often a response to stress, trauma, or anxiety. Hyper-arousal can cause symptoms such as insomnia, irritability, hypervigilance, difficulty concentrating, and exaggerated startle response. Hyper-arousal can interfere with daily functioning and well-being.

A hypnagogic state is a transitional phase between wakefulness and sleep, characterized by vivid sensory experiences, such as hallucinations, illusions, or dreams. It can also involve feelings of paralysis, anxiety, or euphoria. Some people use hypnagogic states for creative purposes, while others find them disturbing or frightening.

Hypoegoic state is a term that refers to the transitional state of consciousness between wakefulness and sleep. It is also known as hypnagogia. During this state, people may experience sensory perceptions that are not based on reality, such as hallucinations, lucid dreams, body jerks, or sleep paralysis. Hypoegoic state is a common phenomenon that can occur in up to 70 percent of people. It can be influenced by various factors, such as alcohol, drugs, stress, sleep deprivation, or creativity.

Hypomania is a mild form of mania that causes elevated mood, increased energy and activity, and reduced need for sleep. Hypomania is not as severe as mania and does not interfere with daily functioning or cause psychosis. However, hypomania can still affect a person's judgment, behaviour and relationships. Hypomania is often a symptom of bipolar disorder or cyclothymia, but it can also be triggered by certain medications, substances or medical conditions.

The hypothalamus is a small but crucial brain region linking the nervous and endocrine systems, acting as the body's control center for maintaining homeostasis (internal balance) by regulating temperature, hunger, thirst, sleep, mood, stress, and hormone release via the pituitary gland. It receives signals from the body and brain, coordinating essential functions like body temperature, appetite, sleep cycles, blood pressure, and emotional responses, making it vital for survival.

An I-position is a specific point of view or role within the self. In psychology, particularly Dialogical Self Theory, people hold many different I-positions like "I as a parent," "I as a worker," or "I as an anxious person" that talk to each other.

Idealistic: the pursuit of higher values and goals that transcend personal interests and benefit humanity and the world.

Identity confusion is a psychological state in which a person feels uncertain or conflicted about their sense of self. It can occur when a person experiences a mismatch between their personal identity and their social role, or when they face multiple and competing demands on their identity. Identity confusion can cause distress, anxiety, low self-esteem, and impaired functioning in various domains of life.

An identity crisis is a psychological state in which a person experiences confusion or uncertainty about their sense of self. It may occur as a result of major life changes, such as adolescence, trauma, or cultural transitions. An identity crisis can affect a person's self-esteem, relationships, and goals. A person may cope with an identity crisis by exploring different aspects of their identity, seeking professional help, or finding support from others who share similar experiences.

Immanence in psychology is the idea that the divine or spiritual reality is present and active within the human mind and the natural world. It contrasts with transcendence, which posits a divine or spiritual reality that is separate and beyond human experience. Some psychologists, such as Jung, Tillich, and Teilhard de Chardin, have explored the implications of immanence for understanding human nature, consciousness, and evolution. They have suggested that immanence implies a connection between individual and totality, a depth of reason and being, and an energy of evolution that drives humanity toward greater communion.

Imminence is a noun that means the state or quality of something being likely to happen very soon. It describes an event, often a danger, storm, or major change, that is looming and on the verge of taking place at any moment.

Immune function in psychology refers to the interactions between the immune system and psychological processes, such as stress, cognition, and emotion. The immune system is a complex network of cells and molecules that protect the body from disease and damage. Psychological stress can affect immune function in various ways, depending on the type, duration, and intensity of the stressor, as well as the individual's coping resources and personality traits.

Some stressors can enhance immune function by activating adaptive responses, while others can impair immune function by causing chronic inflammation or immunosuppression. Immune function can also influence psychological processes, such as mood, motivation, and memory, by modulating neural activity and neurotransmitter levels. Therefore, immune function in psychology is an important topic for understanding the bidirectional links between physical and mental health.

Some references that support this claim are:

- Worth, P., & Smith, M. D. (2021). Clearing the pathways to self-transcendence. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 648381.
- Positive Psychology (2023). What is self-transcendence? Definition and 6 examples (+PDF).
- Verywell Health (n.d.). How the immune system works.
- Medical News Today (2023). The immune system: Cells, tissues, function, and disease.
- Johns Hopkins Medicine (n.d.). The immune system.

Impaired attachment is a condition in which a child or an adult has difficulty forming healthy emotional bonds with others. It can result from neglect, abuse, trauma, separation, or inconsistent caregiving in early childhood. Impaired attachment can affect one's self-esteem, trust, relationships, and mental health.

Impairments in functioning are difficulties or limitations in performing daily activities, such as self-care, work, school, or social interactions. Impairments in functioning can result from various factors, such as physical or mental health conditions, environmental barriers, or lack of resources or support.

An implicate order is a concept in quantum theory proposed by David Bohm to describe a deeper and more fundamental level of reality that underlies the explicate or unfolded order that we normally perceive. According to Bohm, the implicate order is a plenum of potentiality that manifests in various forms through a process of enfoldment and unfoldment. The explicate order is derived from the implicate order by abstraction and is characterized by the notions of space, time, and separate material particles.

Impulsivity is the tendency to act without thinking about the consequences of one's actions. It can be influenced by factors such as emotions, personality, environment, and cognitive abilities. Impulsivity can have positive or negative effects depending on the situation and the outcome of the behaviour.

Individuation is a psychological process of becoming a distinct and integrated person. It involves developing one's own identity, values, and goals, as well as recognizing and integrating one's shadow aspects. Individuation is often associated with the work of Carl Jung, who saw it as a lifelong journey of self-discovery and growth.

Studies have shown that self-transcendent people tend to have lower levels of inflammation. Self-transcendence is a human capacity for well-being by expanding one's personal boundaries and expressing concern for the welfare of others. It may act as a health-promoting resource among adults, especially in times of increased vulnerability. Some examples of self-transcendence are responding to others' needs, being tolerant of differences, and reframing negative situations. Self-transcendence can also improve emotional well-being by enhancing self-acceptance and self-regulation. Some references that support these findings are: - Self-transcendence among adults 65 years and older: A meta-analysis (Haugan et al., 2021) - Self-Transcendence: A Salutogenic Process for Well-Being (Reed & Haugan, 2021) - Greater self-acceptance improves emotional well-being (Harvard Health Publishing, 2016)

Informational encapsulation is a core feature of mental modularity where a cognitive or perceptual subsystem operates using only its own internal database. It cannot be affected, updated, or penetrated by general beliefs, desires, or other information elsewhere in the mind.

Insight is a psychological term that refers to the ability to understand one's own or others' thoughts, feelings, motives, and behaviours. Insight can also mean the sudden realization of a solution to a problem or a new perspective on a situation. It is often associated with cognitive processes such as reasoning, problem-solving, creativity, and self-awareness. Insight can help people to cope with challenges, learn from experiences, and improve their well-being.

Insomnia is a common sleep disorder that makes it hard to fall asleep, stay asleep, or both. It can affect your mood, energy, concentration, and overall health. Insomnia can have many causes, such as stress, anxiety, medical conditions, medications, or lifestyle factors. Insomnia can be treated with behavioural therapy, medication, or a combination of both.

Instinct is an inborn, natural tendency to act in a specific way without needing prior training or learning. It guides humans and animals to make quick choices or react to things in their environment based on biology rather than thought

Insulin – A hormone that helps move sugar from the blood into cells to be used for energy or stored.

Integration in psychology is the process of combining different theoretical perspectives, methods, or findings to create a more comprehensive and coherent understanding of human behaviour and mental processes. Integration can occur at different levels, such as within a discipline (e.g., cognitive-behavioural therapy), across disciplines (e.g., neuropsychology), or between science and practice (e.g., evidence-based practice). It can enhance the validity, applicability, and generality of psychological knowledge and interventions.

Integrative is an adjective that describes something that combines or coordinates separate elements into a whole. For example, integrative medicine is a type of health care that combines conventional and alternative therapies. Integrative can also mean relating to or involving integration, which is the process of bringing together different groups or parts of a system.

The interconnectedness of all life is a concept that refers to the idea that everything in the universe is connected and interdependent. In psychological terms, this means that humans are not isolated beings, but rather part of a larger system that includes other humans, animals, plants, and the environment. Interconnectedness can have implications for how we understand ourselves, our relationships, our emotions, and our behaviours. For example, interconnectedness can foster a sense of empathy, compassion, and belonging, as well as a respect for diversity and sustainability. Interconnectedness can also challenge us to examine our assumptions, biases, and prejudices, and to seek harmony and balance in our lives.

Interdependence in psychology refers to the mutual influence and dependence that people have on each other in their social interactions. It can affect various aspects of human behaviour, such as cooperation, conflict, communication, and motivation. Interdependence can also shape the formation and maintenance of social relationships, such as friendships, romantic partnerships, and family bonds.

Interiority is the state of having an inner mental, emotional, and psychological life. It describes a focus on private thoughts, feelings, self-reflection, and personal consciousness rather than external actions

Internal schema stigma: a generalised negative evaluation imposed upon a wider schema domain because of an output generated by one component associated with it.

Interoception is the sense that perceives internal body signals, acting as a moment-to-moment map of our physical state, encompassing feelings like hunger, thirst, heart rate, breath, temperature, and the need to use the toilet, which are crucial for recognizing emotions (like anxiety or anger) and maintaining overall well-being and self-regulation. It's sometimes called our "eighth sense" and helps us connect our physical sensations to our feelings, influencing behaviour and mental health.

Interoceptive accuracy is the objective ability to accurately sense and detect internal bodily signals, like your heartbeat or breath, and it's a key part of interoception—how your brain understands your body's state, crucial for emotions, decision-making, and self-regulation. It's measured by tasks like counting heartbeats (Heartbeat Detection Task) and differs from interoceptive sensibility (self-belief in sensing) and awareness (knowing if you're accurate). Higher accuracy can link to stronger emotional experiences and better mental health, though its exact role in conditions like ADHD or suicidal thoughts is still researched.

Interoceptive processing is the nervous system's ability to sense, integrate, and interpret signals from inside the body—such as heartbeat, hunger, pain, and temperature. This hidden sense maps our internal landscape to guide basic survival needs and shape emotional experiences in the brain.

Interpersonal deficit is a term that refers to the lack of adequate social skills or relationships in a person's life. It can affect one's ability to communicate, interact, and form meaningful bonds with others. Interpersonal deficit can be caused by various factors, such as trauma, personality disorders, social anxiety, or isolation.

Interpersonal therapy is a short-term and evidence-based psychotherapy that aims to treat mood disorders by improving the quality of interpersonal relationships and social functioning. It focuses on resolving problems in four key areas: grief, role dispute, role transition, and interpersonal deficits. Interpersonal therapy usually involves 12 to 16 sessions of individual or group therapy with homework, assessment, and interviews.

Intersubjective agreement is a shared understanding or mutual consensus among multiple people about subjective experiences, concepts, or meanings, forming a common ground for communication and social reality, distinguishing it from purely individual (subjective) or universal (objective) truths, and is crucial for creating shared meanings like laws or money. It's the basis for reliable judgments in research, where experts agree on classifications, or even in everyday life, like agreeing that a picture shows a "dog".

Intrapsychic means relating to or happening within the mind or psyche of an individual. It can also describe the psychological dynamics that occur inside the mind without reference to the person's interactions with others or events. Intrapsychic processes can be positive, negative, or neutral, depending on their effects on the person's development or well-being.

Intrusive memories are unwanted and distressing thoughts that involuntarily pop into your mind. They often relate to a traumatic event that you experienced or witnessed, such as an accident, abuse, or violence. Intrusive memories can cause anxiety, guilt, shame, anger, or sadness. They can also interfere with your daily life and affect your well-being.

Intrusive thoughts are unwanted and disturbing thoughts that pop into your mind without warning. They can cause anxiety, guilt, or distress. Intrusive thoughts are not a sign of mental illness by themselves, but they can be a symptom of some conditions such as obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) or post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Intrusive thoughts can be treated with therapy, medication, or self-help strategies.

Intuitive means knowing or understanding something right away without needing facts, proof, or deep thinking. It also describes things like apps or tools that are very easy to use and learn without a manual

Item attributes are characteristics of items that can be measured or rated by participants in psychological studies. For example, an item attribute could be the difficulty level, the clarity, or the relevance of a question in a test or a survey. Item attributes can help researchers evaluate the quality and validity of their instruments and data.

John Nash was a brilliant mathematician who suffered from schizophrenia in his 30s. He experienced paranoia and delusions that affected his work and life. He was hospitalized several times and treated with anti-psychotic medications. However, he claimed that he recovered from his illness without medicine, but with the help of ageing, social support and rational thinking. His recovery was remarkable and rare, as only a small percentage of schizophrenia patients achieve remission.

Karma is a concept of action, work or deed, and its effect or consequences. It is based on the idea that what we do, say or think has an impact on our present and future lives. Karma is determined by our own intentions behind our actions. Good karma is the result of actions that are motivated by generosity, compassion, kindness and wisdom. Bad karma is the result of actions that are motivated by greed, hatred, cruelty and ignorance. Karma is not a punishment or a reward, but a natural law that governs the cycle of cause and effect.

The Last Universal Common Ancestor (LUCA) is the hypothetical single-celled organism from which all life on Earth (Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya) descended, existing billions of years ago, possibly around 4.2 billion years ago in hydrothermal vents, possessing key genetic machinery like DNA/RNA and ribosomes, and representing the root of the universal tree of life. Researchers reconstruct LUCA by finding genes and traits common to all present-day life, revealing a complex microbe that harnessed natural chemical energy, likely used hydrogen and carbon dioxide, and had basic defense systems, forming the foundation for all subsequent evolution.

Learned fear is an adaptive survival process where an organism acquires a fear response to a previously neutral stimulus after associating it with a harmful or painful event. This process helps people and animals anticipate and avoid danger.

Lifelong practice, or lifelong learning, is the continuous, voluntary pursuit of knowledge and skills throughout one's life for personal or professional growth, extending beyond formal education. It involves actively seeking new experiences, embracing curiosity, challenging oneself, adapting to change, and taking ownership of one's development through both formal (courses, workshops) and informal (hobbies, conversations) means, ensuring relevance in a rapidly evolving world.

Lithium is a medicine that belongs to the group of mood stabilizers. It is used to treat and prevent episodes of mania and depression in people with bipolar disorder, a mental illness that causes extreme mood swings. It can also reduce the risk of self-harm and suicide in this population. It works by affecting the levels of certain chemicals in the brain that regulate mood. Lithium therapy requires regular blood tests to monitor the amount of lithium in the blood, as well as the functioning of the kidneys and thyroid . Lithium can cause side effects such as nausea, tremor, weight gain, and dry mouth.

Logotherapy is a form of psychotherapy that focuses on finding meaning in life. It was developed by Viktor Frankl, a psychiatrist and Holocaust survivor, who believed that human beings have a will to meaning and that suffering can be overcome by finding a purpose. Logotherapy helps people discover their unique values and goals, and encourages them to take responsibility for their own lives.

To lose oneself means to become so absorbed in an activity or a mental state that one forgets about everything else. In psychology, this phenomenon is also called flow or optimal experience. Flow occurs when a person is fully engaged in a challenging but achievable task that matches their skills and interests. Flow can enhance creativity, productivity, and well-being.

A loss of agency is a psychological phenomenon that occurs when a person feels that they have no control over their actions or outcomes. It can result from external factors, such as coercion, manipulation, or social pressure, or internal factors, such as low self-esteem, learned helplessness, or mental illness. A loss of agency can have negative consequences for a person's well-being, motivation, and performance.

Self-transcendence has been linked to various positive outcomes, such as well-being, life purpose, self-esteem, and optimism. Moreover, self-transcendence may also have a protective effect against mortality, as it can help people cope with existential challenges and transcend their fear of death.

In quantum gravity, a lower-dimensional space is a space that has fewer dimensions than the usual four (three spatial and one temporal) that we observe in our universe. A lower-dimensional space can be thought of as a projection or a slice of a higher-dimensional space, where some of the information or degrees of freedom are lost or hidden. For example, a two-dimensional space is a lower-dimensional space of a three-dimensional space, and a one-dimensional space is a lower-dimensional space of a two-dimensional space. Lower-dimensional spaces are useful for studying some aspects of quantum gravity, such as holography, entanglement and black holes.

Mahatma Gandhi was a prominent Indian leader who fought for India's independence from British rule using non-violent methods. He was born as Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi on October 2, 1869, in Porbandar, a coastal town in Gujarat. He studied law in London and practised as a lawyer in South Africa, where he faced racial discrimination and became involved in civil rights activism. He returned to India in 1915 and joined the Indian National Congress, a political party that sought self-rule for India. He led several campaigns against British policies, such as the Salt March of 1930 and the Quit India Movement of 1942. He also advocated for social reforms, such as abolishing untouchability and empowering women. He was known as Mahatma, meaning "great soul" or "venerable", a title given to him by his admirers. He was assassinated by a Hindu extremist on January 30, 1948, in Delhi.

Major changes in mood – Strong shifts in how you feel emotionally (for example very low to very “up”) that are bigger than normal ups and downs.

Mania is a mental state characterized by extreme euphoria, energy, and impulsivity. It can also cause irritability, racing thoughts, and poor judgment. Mania is often associated with bipolar disorder, a condition that affects mood regulation. Mania can impair one's ability to function normally and may lead to serious consequences if left untreated.

A mantra is a word or phrase that is repeated mentally or aloud to achieve a desired state of mind. In psychological terms, a mantra can be seen as a form of self-suggestion or affirmation that can influence one's thoughts, emotions and behaviours. A mantra can help one to focus, relax, cope with stress, enhance self-esteem, or promote positive change. A mantra can be chosen based on one's personal preferences, goals, values, or beliefs. Some examples of mantras are: "I am calm and confident", "I can do this", "I am grateful for what I have", or "Om".

Marsha Linehan is a renowned American psychologist and author who developed dialectical behaviour therapy (DBT), a type of psychotherapy that helps people with borderline personality disorder and other mental health problems. Linehan was inspired by her own experience of struggling with suicidal behaviour and being misdiagnosed with schizophrenia as a teenager. She later discovered that she had borderline personality disorder and used her knowledge of cognitive-behavioural therapy, Zen meditation, and acceptance to create DBT. Linehan is an Emeritus Professor of Psychology at the University of Washington and has published several books on DBT and related topics.

Maximal receptivity is a psychological concept that refers to the ability to be open and attentive to new information, experiences, and perspectives. It is a state of mind that allows one to learn from others, adapt to changing situations, and appreciate diversity. Maximal receptivity is associated with curiosity, creativity, and growth mindset. It can be enhanced by cultivating mindfulness, empathy, and self-awareness.

Meaning can be understood as the significance or purpose of something or someone. It can also refer to the interpretation or understanding of a message or a symbol. Meaning is not fixed or objective, but rather subjective and contextual. Different people can find different meanings in the same thing, depending on their perspective, values, and goals.

Melatonin is a hormone that regulates the sleep-wake cycle in humans and other animals. It is produced by the pineal gland in the brain and released into the bloodstream at night. Melatonin helps to synchronize the body's circadian rhythms with the environmental light-dark cycle.

Meltdowns are intense, uncontrollable reactions to being overwhelmed by emotions or sensory input, common in autistic individuals but also experienced by others, differing from tantrums because they're involuntary responses to overload, not manipulative, and can involve yelling, crying, lashing out, or shutting down, often triggered by sensory overload, routine changes, or stress. Supporting someone through a meltdown involves staying calm, creating a safe space, reducing stimulation, and understanding it's a distress signal, not bad behaviour.

Mental imagery is the cognitive ability to recreate sensory experiences - such as sights, sounds, smells, or movements - in your mind without any external physical stimulus. It plays a major role in human memory, planning, spatial reasoning, and emotional regulation.

The mesolimbic pathway is a neural circuit that connects the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and the nucleus accumbens (NAc) in the brain. It is involved in reward processing, motivation, and emotion regulation. The mesolimbic pathway is one of the major dopaminergic pathways in the brain, meaning that it uses dopamine as its main neurotransmitter.

A metabolic response is any reaction by the body to a specific influence or impact. Metabolism is a general term describing the organic process in any cellular structure. A metabolic response can occur with respect to individual cells, a gland, an organ, or a process such as the cardiovascular system.

Metabolism – The process by which the body turns food into energy and manages how fast it uses that energy.

Metabolism is the complex set of life-sustaining chemical reactions in your body's cells that convert food and drink into energy for essential functions like breathing, growing, and moving, also creating building blocks for cells and eliminating waste. It involves two main processes: catabolism (breaking down nutrients for energy) and anabolism (using energy to build tissues). Your metabolic rate is the speed at which your body burns calories, influenced by age, genetics, muscle mass, and activity levels, and it runs 24/7 to keep you alive and functioning.

Mitosis is a type of cell division where one single cell copies its DNA and splits into two new cells. These two new cells are exact copies of the first cell. This process helps living things grow and fix hurt body parts.

Modelling is a psychological process in which a person learns new behaviours by observing and imitating others. It is based on the assumption that humans are social beings who can acquire skills and attitudes from their environment. Modelling can be used for various purposes, such as education, therapy, or entertainment.

Mood stabilizers are a type of psychiatric medication used to treat mood disorders characterized by intense and sustained mood shifts, such as bipolar disorder and the bipolar type of schizoaffective disorder. Mood stabilizers can help control the severity of the highs and lows experienced by restoring the chemical balance in the brain. The three main types of mood stabilizers are lithium, anticonvulsants and antipsychotics. Each of these drugs has a different mechanism of action and side effects, so they need to be prescribed and monitored carefully by a doctor.

Mother Teresa was a Catholic nun who dedicated her life to serving the poor and marginalized in India. She founded the Missionaries of Charity, a religious order that runs homes, schools, and hospices for the needy. She was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1979 and was canonized as a saint in 2016.

Mucus is a vital, slippery substance lining your body's passages (nose, lungs, gut, etc.) that moisturizes tissues and traps germs, dust, and irritants, acting as a key part of your immune defence, often noticeable as snot or phlegm when you're sick and producing more to flush out invaders like viruses. While normally clear and thin, changes in its colour, thickness, or amount (becoming thick, coloured, or excessive) signal your body fighting an infection, requiring you to stay hydrated, use saline sprays, or seek medical advice if severe.

A multicellular organism is an organism that consists of more than one cell, and more than one cell type, unlike unicellular organisms.

A multidimensional concept in psychology is a concept that has more than one dimension or aspect, such as self-concept, which can be divided into academic, social, emotional, and physical domains. A multidimensional concept allows for a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of a phenomenon, rather than a unidimensional or oversimplified explanation.

A multidimensional concept in psychology is a concept that has more than one dimension or aspect, such as self-concept, which can be divided into academic, social, emotional, and physical domains. A multidimensional concept allows for a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of a phenomenon, rather than a unidimensional or oversimplified explanation.

Mundus imaginalis is a Latin term coined by French philosopher Henry Corbin to describe an ontologically real, intermediate spiritual realm situated between the physical world of sensory perception and the abstract world of intellectual concepts. It is not a place of unreal fantasy or "the imaginary," but an objective dimension of visionary knowledge, symbols, and archetypes perceived through active imagination.

Mutuality is a concept in psychology that refers to the degree of reciprocity and mutual understanding between two or more individuals. Mutuality can be seen as an indicator of the quality and depth of a relationship, as well as a predictor of its outcomes. Mutuality can be measured by assessing how well the individuals share their thoughts, feelings, needs, and goals, and how they respond to each other's expressions of these aspects. Mutuality can also be influenced by factors such as trust, empathy, respect, and communication skills.

A mystical experience is a subjective perception that is hard to comprehend or describe with rational or simple language. It usually involves a sense of connection with something greater than oneself, such as a higher force, and a temporary alteration of one's sense of time and space. Mystical experiences have been studied in psychology from different perspectives, some emphasizing their pathological nature and others their spiritual component. Some researchers have suggested that mystical experiences can indicate healthy psychological functioning and heightened spiritual intelligence, while others have linked them to psychopathological conditions such as schizophrenia. Mystical experiences can be triggered by various factors, such as meditation, ritualized activities, hyperventilation, or drugs.

A mystical experience is a subjective perception that is hard to comprehend or describe with rational or simple language. It usually involves a sense of connection with something greater than oneself, such as a higher force, and a temporary alteration of one's sense of time and space. Mystical experiences have been studied in psychology from different perspectives, some emphasizing their pathological nature and others their spiritual component. Some researchers have suggested that mystical experiences can indicate healthy psychological functioning and heightened spiritual intelligence, while others have linked them to psychopathological conditions such as schizophrenia. Mystical experiences can be triggered by various factors, such as meditation, ritualized activities, hyperventilation, or drugs.

Peak experience is a term coined by psychologist Abraham Maslow to describe a state of consciousness characterized by euphoria, wonder, awe, and a sense of transcendence. In psychology, peak experiences are considered to be moments of optimal functioning and self-actualization, when a person feels fully alive and connected to their true self and their environment. Peak experiences can occur in various contexts, such as nature, art, music, spirituality, or human relationships. They can have lasting positive effects on a person's well-being and motivation.

Peak experience is a term coined by psychologist Abraham Maslow to describe a state of consciousness characterized by euphoria, wonder, awe, and a sense of transcendence. In psychology, peak experiences are considered to be moments of optimal functioning and self-actualization, when a person feels fully alive and connected to their true self and their environment. Peak experiences can occur in various contexts, such as nature, art, music, spirituality, or human relationships. They can have lasting positive effects on a person's well-being and motivation.

Mysticism in psychology is the study of the subjective experiences of individuals who claim to have direct contact with a transcendent reality, such as God, a higher self, or a cosmic consciousness. Mystical experiences are often characterized by a sense of unity, ineffability, bliss, and transcendence of time and space. Psychologists have tried to understand the nature, causes, and effects of mysticism from various perspectives, such as psychoanalysis, humanistic psychology, transpersonal psychology, and cognitive neuroscience.

Naturalistic decision-making (NDM) is a framework that studies how people make fast, effective choices in complex, real-world situations involving high stakes, time pressure, and shifting goals. Pioneered in the 1980s by researchers like Gary Klein, NDM focuses on experienced professionals—such as firefighters, nurses, and military commanders—rather than people in controlled lab tests.

Nausea is the unpleasant feeling of queasiness or sickness in your stomach that often precedes vomiting, accompanied by symptoms like cold sweats, dizziness, and pale skin, and can be triggered by illness, food poisoning, motion, pregnancy, medication, stress, or migraines, but usually resolves with bland foods, ginger, or rest; see a doctor for severe or persistent symptoms, especially with vomiting blood or severe headache.

A near-death experience (NDE) is a phenomenon that occurs when a person is close to death or clinically dead, and later reports having a conscious experience of various events, such as seeing a bright light, leaving their body, meeting deceased relatives, or having a life review. NDEs are not well understood by science, and different explanations have been proposed, such as psychological reactions to the threat of death, changes in brain activity and chemistry, or spiritual evidence of an afterlife. NDEs can have profound effects on the person who experiences them, such as losing the fear of death, becoming more compassionate and altruistic, or developing enhanced intuition and psychic abilities. NDEs are rare but not uncommon, and they have been reported by people from different cultures and backgrounds.

A near-death experience (NDE) is a phenomenon that occurs when a person is close to death or clinically dead, and later reports having a conscious experience of various events, such as seeing a bright light, leaving their body, meeting deceased relatives, or having a life review. NDEs are not well understood by science, and different explanations have been proposed, such as psychological reactions to the threat of death, changes in brain activity and chemistry, or spiritual evidence of an afterlife. NDEs can have profound effects on the person who experiences them, such as losing the fear of death, becoming more compassionate and altruistic, or developing enhanced intuition and psychic abilities. NDEs are rare but not uncommon, and they have been reported by people from different cultures and backgrounds.

A near-death experience (NDE) is a phenomenon that occurs when a person is close to death or clinically dead, and later reports having a conscious experience of various events, such as seeing a bright light, leaving their body, meeting deceased relatives, or having a life review. NDEs are not well understood by science, and different explanations have been proposed, such as psychological reactions to the threat of death, changes in brain activity and chemistry, or spiritual evidence of an afterlife. NDEs can have profound effects on the person who experiences them, such as losing the fear of death, becoming more compassionate and altruistic, or developing enhanced intuition and psychic abilities. NDEs are rare but not uncommon, and they have been reported by people from different cultures and backgrounds.

Near-decomposability is a property of complex systems where interactions within subsystems are much stronger and faster than interactions between subsystems. Introduced by economist and cognitive scientist Herbert Simon, it allows large systems to function, evolve, and be understood without total collapse when one part changes

Near-decomposable systems are complex structures divided into smaller subsystems. The short-term behavior of each part is mostly independent, while long-term interactions between parts happen only in a simple, aggregate way. This concept, introduced by economist and polymath Herbert Simon, explains how complex natural and human systems function and survive

Negative beliefs are thoughts that you have about yourself, others, or the world that are not based on reality. They are often distorted, exaggerated, or irrational, and they can cause you to feel unhappy, anxious, or hopeless. Some examples of negative beliefs are: "I'm worthless", "No one likes me", "I can't do anything right", "Everything is hopeless", or "The world is a dangerous place".

Negative emotions are feelings that cause distress or discomfort, such as anger, sadness, fear, guilt, or shame. They are not inherently bad or wrong, but they can be challenging to cope with and may affect one's mental health and well-being. Negative emotions can also serve as signals that something needs to change or be addressed in one's life.

Negative interdependence: This occurs when group members have conflicting goals and suffer from each other's success

Negative stereotypes are oversimplified, fixed, and inaccurate beliefs applied to an entire group of people based on traits like race, gender, age, or background. They cause harm by fuelling prejudice, encouraging unfair treatment, and triggering stress or underperformance through stereotype threat.

Nerve signals, or impulses, are rapid electrical messages that travel along neurons, created by ion flow across cell membranes (action potentials) and transmitted between neurons via chemical messengers called neurotransmitters at synapses. This process allows the nervous system to transmit information, from sensory input to motor commands, enabling thought, movement, and automatic body functions, using a combination of electrical flow within neurons and chemical release between them.

Nerves are vital, cable-like bundles of fibers (axons) from nerve cells (neurons) that transmit electrochemical signals, acting as the body's communication network between the brain, spinal cord, and the rest of the body, enabling sensation, movement, and controlling involuntary functions like breathing and digestion. They form the peripheral nervous system (PNS) and are classified as sensory (to CNS), motor (from CNS), or interneurons, allowing for rapid communication essential for all bodily functions.

The nervous system is the body's command center, a complex network of nerves, the brain, and the spinal cord that coordinates actions, sensory information, and involuntary functions like breathing and heartbeats by transmitting electrical and chemical signals. It's divided into the Central Nervous System (CNS), comprising the brain and spinal cord for processing, and the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS), the nerves extending throughout the body for communication. Its main job is to receive information, process it, and trigger responses, controlling everything from thoughts and movement to digestion and sensing pain.

Neural correlates are the specific brain regions or neural processes that are associated with a particular cognitive function or behaviour. For example, the neural correlate of visual perception is the activity in the primary visual cortex and other areas of the brain that process visual information. Neural correlates can be identified by using various methods such as neuroimaging, electrophysiology, or lesion studies.

A neural network is a type of artificial intelligence that mimics the structure and function of biological neurons. A neural network consists of layers of interconnected nodes that process and transmit information. Each node has a set of weights and biases that determine how it responds to the inputs from the previous layer. The output of a neural network depends on the activation functions, learning algorithms, and optimization methods used to train it. Neural networks can perform various tasks such as classification, regression, clustering, and generation.

A neural system is an organized network of nerve cells and circuits in the brain and body that process information and control behavior. It includes biological systems like sensory and motor pathways, as well as artificial computer networks inspired by the brain

Neurobiology is the scientific study of the nervous system and its functions. It covers topics such as how neurons communicate, how the brain processes information, and how neural circuits regulate behaviour. Neurobiology is an interdisciplinary field that draws from biology, psychology, chemistry, physics, and mathematics.

Neurodivergent describes individuals whose brains process, learn, and behave differently from what society considers "typical," encompassing conditions like Autism, ADHD, Dyslexia, Dyspraxia, Tourette's, and others, representing natural variations in human neurology rather than deficits, according to the Royal College of Nursing and NHS Scotland. It's an umbrella term, part of the broader concept of neurodiversity, recognizing that diverse brains bring unique strengths, while acknowledging societal barriers.

Neuroimaging is the use of quantitative and computational techniques to map and study the structure, function, and pharmacology of the central nervous system. It serves as a vital tool in modern neuroscience, psychology, and medicine to visualize brain activity and diagnose neurological or psychiatric conditions

Neuroplasticity is the ability of the brain to change its structure and function in response to experience. It allows the brain to adapt to new situations, learn new skills, and recover from injury.

Neuroscientific is an adjective that describes something related to neuroscience, which is the scientific study of the nervous system and its functions, such as cognition, emotion, and behaviour. Neuroscientific research can involve various methods and disciplines, such as biology, psychology, computer science, and medicine.

Neurosis is a term that describes a range of mental and emotional disorders that affect a person's well-being and functioning. Some common symptoms of neurosis are anxiety, depression, phobias, obsessive-compulsive behaviours, and irrational thoughts. Neurosis can be caused by various factors, such as genetics, trauma, stress, or personality traits. Neurosis can be treated with psychotherapy, medication, or lifestyle changes.

A neurotransmitter is a chemical substance that carries signals from one nerve cell to another. Neurotransmitters are released from the end of a nerve cell when it is stimulated by an electrical impulse. They then bind to receptors on the surface of another nerve cell, causing it to either fire or inhibit its own electrical impulse. Neurotransmitters play a key role in regulating many functions of the nervous system, such as mood, memory, learning, and pain.

Nightmares are unpleasant dreams that cause fear, anxiety, or distress. They usually occur during the rapid eye movement (REM) stage of sleep, when the brain is most active and vivid dreaming happens. Nightmares may be triggered by stress, trauma, emotional issues, medication, or other factors. They can affect anyone, but are more common in children and people with mental health problems. Nightmares are not harmful in themselves, but they can interfere with sleep quality and daytime functioning. If nightmares are frequent or severe, they may indicate a sleep disorder or an underlying psychological condition that requires treatment.

Noradrenaline, also known as norepinephrine, is a hormone and a neurotransmitter that plays a key role in the body's fight-or-flight response to stress. It is produced by the adrenal glands and by some nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord. It helps increase alertness, arousal, attention, heart rate, blood pressure, blood glucose and blood flow to the muscles. Furthermore, it also affects mood, memory and sleep-wake cycle. Noradrenaline is broken down by enzymes or taken back into nerve cells after its action.

Nutrient absorption is the vital process where digested food molecules pass from the digestive tract (mainly the small intestine) into the bloodstream and lymphatic system, providing the body with energy, growth, and repair materials. This involves breaking down food into simple sugars, amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals, which then cross the intestinal lining (via villi) into blood capillaries (for water-soluble items) or lymph vessels (for fats) to be distributed throughout the body.

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a mental health condition that involves persistent and intrusive thoughts (obsessions) and repetitive actions (compulsions) that cause distress or interfere with daily functioning. People with OCD may have obsessions about things like contamination, harm, order, or morality. They may perform compulsions such as washing, checking, counting, or praying to reduce their anxiety or prevent something bad from happening. OCD can affect anyone, regardless of age, gender, or background. It can be treated with medication, therapy, or a combination of both.

The oesophagus (or esophagus) is the muscular tube connecting the throat (pharynx) to the stomach, responsible for transporting food and liquids via wave-like muscle contractions (peristalsis). It's part of the digestive system, located behind the windpipe, and features sphincters at its top and bottom to control food entry and prevent acid reflux, with problems like acid reflux (GERD) or inflammation (oesophagitis) being common issues.

Olanzapine is a medication that belongs to a group of drugs called atypical antipsychotics. It is used to treat the symptoms of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Olanzapine works by affecting the levels of certain chemicals in the brain, such as dopamine and serotonin. It can help to improve mood, reduce hallucinations and delusions, and prevent manic episodes. Olanzapine is available as tablets, orodispersible tablets, and injections. It is only prescribed by a doctor and should be taken as directed.

Oneness is a psychological term that refers to the experience of feeling connected to something larger than oneself, such as nature, humanity, or a higher power. Oneness can be induced by various factors, such as meditation, psychedelics, awe-inspiring events, or near-death experiences. It is associated with positive outcomes, such as increased well-being, empathy, altruism, and creativity.

An ontological interpretation is a method of understanding the nature of being or reality. It seeks to elucidate the fundamental categories and concepts that underlie all phenomena. An ontological interpretation does not rely on any specific philosophical discipline, but rather on the way to the ground of being. An ontological interpretation is different from other types of interpretation that may focus on the subjective or historical aspects of phenomena.

Open-mindedness is a psychological trait that refers to the willingness and ability to consider different perspectives, opinions, and evidence without bias or prejudice. Open-minded people are curious, flexible, and respectful of others' views. They are open to changing their own beliefs and attitudes when faced with new information or arguments. Open-mindedness can foster learning, creativity, and problem-solving skills.

Operant conditioning is a type of learning where voluntary behavior is shaped by its consequences, such as rewards or punishments. Developed by B.F. Skinner based on Edward Thorndike's Law of Effect, it uses reinforcement to increase a behavior and punishment to decrease it

How did Oprah Winfrey achieve transcendence? This is a complex question that has different meanings and implications depending on the context. In this post, we will focus on the idea of racial transcendence, which refers to an elevated status in which evaluations of an individual are no longer shaped by the race of the attitudinal target or the race of the person making the evaluations.

Oprah Winfrey is widely regarded as one of the most influential and successful media personalities in the world. She has built a global empire that spans television, film, books, magazines, podcasts, and philanthropy. She has also been a vocal advocate for social justice, education, health, and wellness. Some observers argue that Oprah Winfrey transcends race, meaning that she is just as likely to receive support from non-Blacks as she is from fellow Blacks. They point to her popularity among diverse audiences, her ability to connect with people from different backgrounds and cultures, and her universal appeal as a source of inspiration and empowerment.

However, this argument may not follow when Oprah moves into the political arena. According to a study by McClerking et al. (2019), Oprah's endorsement of Barack Obama in the 2008 presidential campaign revealed the fragility of her racial transcendence. The study found that Oprah enjoyed her greatest support among racial fellows, and her favorability flowed along the lines of race and gender: Her greatest supporters were black women. Oprah's ability to offer political cues also flowed along lines of race and gender: Those most likely to be influenced by her Obama endorsement were black women. The study concluded that Oprah's racial transcendence was contingent on the context and the issue at hand, and that her political involvement activated racial identities and attitudes among both Blacks and non-blacks.

Therefore, we can say that Oprah Winfrey achieved transcendence in some aspects of her life and career, but not in others. Her transcendence was not absolute or permanent, but rather conditional and situational. Her transcendence was also not necessarily a goal or a desire for her, but rather a perception or a label imposed by others. Ultimately, Oprah Winfrey's transcendence was a complex and dynamic phenomenon that reflected both her personal achievements and the social realities of race in America.

Organised sensorimotor schemes are mental and physical patterns of action used by infants during the sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years) to understand and interact with the world. These frameworks start as basic reflexes and grow into coordinated, intentional goal-directed behaviors

Organismic dynamics refers to the holistic study of living systems, viewing organisms as integrated wholes where all behaviours, functions, and parts interact dynamically, rather than as isolated components, often emphasizing inherent growth tendencies, self-regulation, and the interplay between the organism and its environment, seen in psychology (self-determination theory), biology (systems biology), and even sociology (organic analogy). The term is also used to express the range of organismic responses being used in the organism - the mechanism that the organism uses, and how they interact.

Organismic or Organic Intelligence (OI) is a human empowerment and clinical framework developed by Steve Hoskinson. It focuses on the body's natural, self-organizing capacity to heal from stress and trauma without pathologizing symptoms or overly focusing on what is "wrong". You can explore more through the Organic Intelligence official platform

The organismic modelling process views living systems or human psychological development as active, holistic wholes rather than mechanical parts. Change happens from within through self-regulation, adaptation, and environmental interaction

The term organismic self-schema bridges Carl Rogers' concept of the authentic "organismic self" (the true, inner core of feelings and bodily instincts) and cognitive psychology's "self-schema" (the organized cognitive framework of self-knowledge and beliefs). It represents how an individual cognitively structures their raw, innate inner experiences

The recursively organised informational architecture through which an organism represents, coordinates and regulates information concerning itself.

Ovaries – Organs in the female body that release eggs and make hormones like estrogen and progesterone.

To explain overwhelmed in psychological terms, we can use the concept of stress. Stress is the body's reaction to a perceived threat or challenge. When we face a stressful situation, our nervous system activates the fight-or-flight response, which prepares us to cope with the situation. However, if the stress is too intense, frequent, or prolonged, it can exceed our coping resources and lead to feeling overwhelmed. Feeling overwhelmed means that we have difficulty managing our emotions, thoughts, and behaviours in response to the stressor. We may feel anxious, depressed, angry, or helpless. We may also experience physical symptoms such as headaches, insomnia, fatigue, or digestive problems.

Pain is a complex phenomenon that involves both physiological and psychological aspects. Pain can be defined as an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience that is associated with actual or potential tissue damage. It serves as a warning mechanism that helps us to avoid or escape from harmful stimuli, but it can also impair our functioning and well-being when it becomes chronic or persistent. Psychology can help us to understand the factors that influence how we perceive, cope with, and manage pain, as well as to develop effective interventions to reduce pain and improve quality of life.

Pamela Reed is a psychologist who developed the Theory of Self-Transcendence, which is a framework for understanding how people cope with difficult life situations and enhance their well-being. She based her theory on the idea that humans have a capacity to transcend their physical and personal limitations and connect with something greater than themselves, such as nature, spirituality, or humanity. She applied her theory to various populations, such as older adults, children, and people with chronic illnesses. She also conducted research on the factors that influence self-transcendence and its outcomes on mental health, quality of life, and coping. Pamela Reed is currently a professor at the University of Arizona College of Nursing and a member of several professional associations.

Pancreas – An organ that sits behind the stomach and makes insulin and other substances to help digest food.

Panentheistic describes the belief that the universe exists within God, but God is also greater than the universe, pervading it while transcending it. It's a middle ground between pantheism (God is the universe) and classical theism (God is separate from the universe). In a panentheistic view, God is immanent (in everything) and transcendent (beyond everything), with the cosmos being God's body or manifestation, allowing for a dynamic, interactive relationship where God can be affected by the world.

Panpsychism is the philosophical view that consciousness, mind, or mind-like properties are fundamental and ubiquitous features of the physical world. Rather than emerging solely from complex biological brains, basic experiential properties are built into the fundamental foundations of reality, such as elementary particles.

Paranoia is a mental state that involves excessive fear or mistrust of others, even when there is no evidence or very little evidence to support it. Paranoia can affect how a person thinks, feels and behaves. It can be caused by various factors, such as stress, trauma, drug use, genetics or brain chemistry. This can also be a symptom of a mental disorder, such as schizophrenia or paranoid personality disorder. Paranoia can interfere with a person's daily functioning and relationships, and may require treatment with psychotherapy and medication.

The parasympathetic nervous system (PSNS) is a part of the autonomic nervous system that controls the body's functions when it is at rest or in normal situations. It opposes the effects of the sympathetic nervous system, which prepares the body for stress or danger. The PSNS stimulates activities such as digestion, salivation, urination, and sexual arousal. It acts on organs by releasing a chemical called acetylcholine at the ends of nerve fibres.

The sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems are the two branches of the autonomic nervous system, working in opposition to control involuntary functions like heart rate and digestion, with the sympathetic system driving "fight-or-flight" (action, stress response) by increasing energy use and preparing for threats, and the parasympathetic system promoting "rest-and-digest" (calm, recovery) by conserving energy and supporting daily functions. Think of them as the accelerator (sympathetic) and the brake (parasympathetic) for your body's automatic systems.

The pathological is the study of diseases and their causes, effects, and mechanisms. It is a branch of medicine that uses laboratory tests and microscopic examination of tissues and cells to diagnose various conditions and disorders.

Pattern matching in decision-making is the mental shortcut where people compare a new situation to past experiences. When cues fit a known template, the brain immediately suggests a familiar judgment or response. This core cognitive process drives intuition, allows experts to act fast under pressure, but can also trigger biases when a current situation only looks like a past one on the surface

Being sensitive to patterns can mean two distinct things: a visual-perceptual reaction to geometric shapes (pattern glare) or an acute cognitive awareness of behavioural, emotional, or environmental trends (cognitive pattern recognition

A Pauli operator is a set of Pauli matrices (X, Y, Z) plus the identity (I) that act on single-qubit states. They are foundational in quantum mechanics to represent spin observables and in quantum computing to perform basic logic gate operations.

A Pauli-string representation is a tensor product of single-qubit Pauli operators (I, X, Y, Z) acting on a multi-qubit system, written compactly as a text string like XYZ or with a coefficient like -iZIZ. It is widely used in quantum computing to represent observables, gates, and spin Hamiltonians efficiently without full matrix expansion

Peak experience is a term coined by psychologist Abraham Maslow to describe a state of consciousness characterized by euphoria, wonder, awe, and a sense of transcendence. Peak experiences are often associated with self-actualization, the highest level of human potential in Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Peak experiences can occur during various activities, such as art, nature, sex, creative work, music, or introspection, and they can have a lasting impact on one's personal growth and world-view. According to Maslow, peak experiences reveal the true nature of reality, which is perceived as good, beautiful, whole, alive, unique, perfect, and simple.

Peak experience is a term coined by psychologist Abraham Maslow to describe a state of consciousness characterized by euphoria, wonder, awe, and a sense of transcendence. Peak experiences are often associated with self-actualization, the highest level of human potential in Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Peak experiences can occur during various activities, such as art, nature, sex, creative work, music, or introspection, and they can have a lasting impact on one's personal growth and world-view. According to Maslow, peak experiences reveal the true nature of reality, which is perceived as good, beautiful, whole, alive, unique, perfect, and simple.

Pedagogically means doing something in a way that relates to the theory, method, or practice of teaching. When a choice, tool, or lesson is described this way, it means it is designed to help people learn well based on sound educational ideas

Peer judgments refer to evaluations, opinions, or decisions made by people who share a similar social status, age, or professional standing. These assessments shape social norms, academic grading, and workplace teamwork. According to The Law Dictionary, the term historically applies to decisions made by a peer group involving one of its members

Peer support is a form of mutual assistance that involves people with similar experiences or challenges helping each other. Peer support can offer emotional, social, and practical support, as well as a sense of belonging and empowerment. This support can take place in various settings, such as online platforms, self-help groups, or mentoring programs.

Pepsin is a powerful stomach enzyme (protease) that starts protein digestion by breaking large proteins into smaller peptides and amino acids, working best in the stomach's acidic environment. Produced as inactive pepsinogen, it's activated by stomach acid. While essential for digestion, its presence in the esophagus (due to reflux) can damage tissues, causing symptoms like heartburn or chronic throat clearing, notes.

Perceptual alterations are changes in how a person experiences their senses, such as vision, hearing, touch, smell, or taste. They can be caused by various factors, such as drugs, mental disorders, brain injuries, or sensory deprivation. Perceptual alterations can affect a person's perception of reality, memory, emotions, and behaviour.

The PERMA model is a framework for understanding and enhancing human wellbeing. It was proposed by positive psychologist Martin Seligman and consists of five elements: Positive Emotion, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning, and Accomplishment. Each element contributes to well-being and can be measured and cultivated independently. The PERMA model can be applied to various domains of life, such as work, education, health, and personal growth.

Personal boundaries are the limits and rules we set for ourselves within relationships. They define what is appropriate behaviour in our interactions with others and how we protect our own emotional and physical well-being. Personal boundaries vary depending on our personality, culture, and social context, and they can help us express ourselves with integrity and respect.

Personal boundaries are the limits and rules we set for ourselves within relationships. They define what is appropriate behaviour in our interactions with others and how we protect our own emotional and physical well-being. Personal boundaries vary depending on our personality, culture, and social context, and they can help us express ourselves with integrity and respect.

A sense of personal significance is the feeling that one's life has meaning, purpose and value beyond oneself. It is the awareness of one's contribution to the world and one's connection with others. A sense of personal significance can enhance one's well-being, happiness and resilience. It can also motivate one to pursue worthwhile goals and overcome challenges.

Personality fragmentation is a psychological phenomenon that occurs when a person experiences a conflict between different aspects of their identity. This can lead to a sense of confusion, inconsistency, or detachment from oneself. Personality fragmentation can be caused by trauma, stress, or identity crisis. It can also be a coping mechanism to deal with difficult situations or emotions.

A perspective in psychology is a way of looking at and explaining human behaviour and mental processes. Different perspectives emphasize different aspects of human nature, such as biological, cognitive, social, or emotional factors. Some of the major perspectives in psychology are psychodynamic, behavioural, cognitive, humanistic, biological, and cross-cultural. Each perspective has its own assumptions, methods, and applications in psychology.

Persuasion: Where we intentionally or unintentionally influence the behaviour of others by expressing our opinions, preferences, or emotions. This is called 

Phenomenological autonomy views self-determination through lived experience, embodiment, and reflection rather than abstract rationality. It argues that true agency emerges from how a person physically and emotionally inhabits their world, moving beyond traditional, isolated models of choice

Phenomenology is a branch of philosophy that studies the structures of human experience and consciousness. It aims to describe how things appear to us in our perception, imagination, memory, emotion, and other mental states. Phenomenology does not try to explain the causes or origins of phenomena, but rather to explore their essential meanings and features.

Phobia is a type of anxiety disorder that causes an intense and irrational fear of a specific object, situation, or activity. People with phobias may experience panic attacks, sweating, trembling, nausea, or difficulty breathing when they encounter their feared stimulus. Phobias can interfere with daily life and cause significant distress.

The term "phylogenetic layer" is primarily used in the context of visualizing or analysing multi-layered biological data on a phylogenetic tree, or in specific neuroscience contexts referring to the evolutionary history of brain structures. In the field of bioinformatics, "phylogenetic layer" typically refers to the addition of supplementary data to a standard phylogenetic tree visualization to provide more context about the organisms or genes being studied.

Physiological arousal is the body's automatic state of readiness and activation. Driven by the sympathetic nervous system and brain structures like the reticular activating system, it causes fast changes like a racing heart, quick breathing, sweaty skin, and tensed muscles in response to internal or external stimuli.

Pierre Marie Félix Janet; French; 30 May 1859 – 24 February 1947) was a pioneering French psychologist, physician, philosopher, and psychotherapist in the field of dissociation and traumatic memory.

A plenum of potentiality is a philosophical concept that refers to the idea of a fullness of being that contains all possibilities. It is often contrasted with the notion of a void or nothingness, which implies the absence of any potential. A plenum of potentiality can be seen as a source of creativity, diversity and novelty, as well as a challenge to determinism and reductionism.

William James’s pluralism is a philosophical view arguing that reality is a diverse, interconnected web of many independent experiences rather than a single, unified absolute whole. Outlined heavily in his 1909 work A Pluralistic Universe, James rejected monism and absolute idealism, proposing instead that things are plurally related without forming a single monolithic totality.

The Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) is a self-report measure of positive and negative emotions. It consists of 20 items that ask the respondent to rate how they feel at a given moment on a 5-point scale. The PANAS can be used to assess mood states, emotional reactions, and personality traits.

Positive emotions are feelings that make us experience satisfaction, joy, and well-being. They are not just fleeting moments of happiness, but also have important benefits for our physical and mental health, our relationships, and our personal growth. Some examples of positive emotions are: Joy: a sense of elation, happiness, and perhaps even exhilaration, often experienced as a sudden spike due to something good happening. Gratitude: a feeling of thankfulness, for something specific or simply all-encompassing, often accompanied by humility and generosity. Pride: a feeling of accomplishment, confidence, and self-esteem, usually related to achieving a goal or overcoming a challenge. Serenity: a calm and peaceful state of mind, free from stress and worries. Interest: a feeling of curiosity, fascination, and engagement with something new or stimulating.

Positive interdependence: This occurs when group members share a common goal and benefit from each other's success.

A positive mindset is a psychological state that involves focusing on the good aspects of a situation and expecting positive outcomes. It is associated with higher levels of well-being, happiness, optimism, resilience, and self-efficacy. A positive mindset can also influence one's behaviour, motivation, and performance in various domains of life. A positive mindset can be cultivated by practising gratitude, affirmations, mindfulness, self-compassion, and positive reframing.

Positive psychology interventions are evidence-based practices that aim to increase well-being and happiness in individuals and groups. They focus on enhancing positive emotions, strengths, and meaning in life, rather than reducing negative symptoms or disorders. Some examples of positive psychology interventions are gratitude exercises, mindfulness meditation, and goal-setting.

Post-traumatic growth is a positive psychological change that some people experience after facing a traumatic event. It involves developing new perspectives, skills, or relationships that enhance one's well-being and resilience.

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a mental health condition that can occur after experiencing a traumatic event, such as a violent assault, a natural disaster, or a serious accident. People with PTSD may have intrusive and distressing memories of the event, avoid reminders of the trauma, feel numb or detached, and have increased anxiety and irritability. PTSD can interfere with daily functioning and affect personal and professional relationships. PTSD can be treated with medication, psychotherapy, or a combination of both.

Precognition is the alleged ability to perceive or predict future events before they happen, using extrasensory perception or intuition. It is a controversial and widely debated topic in parapsychology and psychology, with no conclusive scientific evidence to support its existence. Some possible explanations for precognition include retrocausality, quantum entanglement, confirmation bias, and coincidence.

The prefrontal cortex is a part of the brain that is involved in higher cognitive functions, such as planning, decision-making, working memory, and self-control. It is located at the front of the cerebral cortex, just behind the forehead.

"Prenatal functional organization" can refer to fetal brain development or functional movement training during pregnancy. In neuroscience, it describes how neural networks and sensory systems form inside the womb. In fitness, it refers to structured movement pattern, such as core stability, breathing, and posture, and as used by programs such as Functional Patterns or specialized groups like PregActive to keep expectant mothers strong and aligned

Prenatal functional organization refers to how lifestyle, movement, and clinical care systems prepare a pregnant body for birth and postpartum recovery. It blends physical training for daily tasks with systems-based health frameworks like Functional Patterns.

Martin Seligman’s preparedness theory proposes that humans and animals are biologically and evolutionarily predisposed to easily learn associations between certain stimuli and fear or danger. This concept explains why people rapidly develop phobias for ancient survival threats, such as snakes, spiders, and heights, rather than modern hazards like cars or electrical outlets

The primary visual cortex is the brain's main area for processing visual data, also known as V1, the striate cortex, or Brodmann area 17. It sits at the back of the brain in the occipital lobe and handles the first stage of cortical vision

Probabilistic is an adjective that describes something that is based on or involves probability. Probability is the mathematical study of how likely an event or outcome is to occur, given some assumptions or conditions. For example, a probabilistic model can be used to predict the weather, the behaviour of a system, or the outcome of an experiment. Probabilistic methods can also be used to quantify uncertainty, risk, or confidence in a decision or a hypothesis.

A process of becoming is a dynamic and continuous transformation of an entity or a system from one state to another. It involves change, growth, adaptation, learning, and evolution. A process of becoming can be observed in various domains, such as biology, psychology, sociology, philosophy, and art. For example, a caterpillar undergoes a process of becoming when it metamorphoses into a butterfly. A person undergoes a process of becoming when they develop their identity, skills, values, and goals. A society undergoes a process of becoming when it changes its culture, norms, institutions, and laws.

Process philosophy is a school of thought that views change, activity, and becoming as the fundamental ingredients of reality. It rejects the traditional view that the world is made of static, unchanging substances, arguing instead that everything - from physical matter to human experience - consists of continuous relational events and flux

Process philosophy is a school of thought that views change, activity, and becoming as the fundamental ingredients of reality. It rejects the traditional view that the world is made of static, unchanging substances, arguing instead that everything—from physical matter to human experience—consists of continuous relational events and flux

A profound statement or idea is one that has a deep meaning or impact. It can make us think differently, feel deeply, or act positively. A profound experience or person is one that has a lasting influence or effect on us. It can shape our values, beliefs, or goals. Profoundness is not easy to define or measure, but we can recognize it when we encounter it.

Progesterone – A hormone that helps prepare and maintain the womb for pregnancy and regulates parts of the menstrual cycle.

Proprioception is your body's hidden "sixth sense". It allows you to perceive your position, movement, and muscle force in space without relying on your eyes. This automatic feedback loop lets you walk, type, or touch your nose with your eyes closed.

• Proprioceptive: relating to the sense of position and movement of one's own body parts
• Proprioceptive feedback: the information that the brain receives from the muscles, joints, and skin about the body's position and movement
• Proprioceptive training: exercises that improve the ability to sense and control the body's position and movement

The prosocial is a term that refers to a social behaviour that benefits other people or society as a whole, such as helping, sharing, donating, co-operating, and volunteering. It can be motivated by empathy, concern, altruism, reciprocity, or fairness . Prosocial behaviour can have positive effects on the well-being of individuals and groups.

Prosociality is a term that refers to the behaviours and attitudes that benefit others, such as cooperation, altruism, empathy, and kindness. It is important for human social relationships and well-being, as it fosters trust, reciprocity, and mutual support. This can also have positive effects on the environment, as it motivates people to act in ways that reduce harm and promote sustainability. Prosociality can be influenced by various factors, such as genes, personality, culture, norms, and situational cues. It can also be enhanced by interventions that target cognitive, emotional, or motivational aspects of prosocial behaviour.

Proteins are essential macronutrients made of amino acid chains, crucial for building and repairing tissues, making enzymes and hormones, supporting immune function, and transporting molecules, with functions determined by their specific 3D shapes. Found in meats, eggs, dairy, legumes, and nuts, they provide structure (collagen, keratin) and catalyze vital reactions (enzymes, hemoglobin).

Provenance loss: loss of conscious access to the originating schema, informational state or developmental cause of an experienced downstream output following one or more mask-mediated transformations or redirects.

Psychokinesis is a term that refers to the alleged ability of the mind to influence matter without any physical intervention. It is also known as PK or telekinesis. Psychokinesis is studied by parapsychology, a branch of psychology that investigates paranormal phenomena. Some examples of psychokinesis are levitating objects, bending metal, or influencing random number generators. However, there is no conclusive scientific evidence to support the existence of psychokinesis.

Psychological Capital is a concept that refers to the positive psychological resources that individuals possess and can use to cope with challenges and achieve their goals. It consists of four components: self-efficacy, optimism, hope, and resilience.

Psychological fragmentation, in the specific theoretical usage proposed The Human Multiplicity Theory, refers to a condition in which differentiated psychological domains lack sufficient communication, mutual recognition or cooperative organisation to participate reliably in a coherent shared life.

A psychological framework is a set of concepts and principles that guide the understanding and interpretation of human behavior and mental processes. It helps to organize and integrate the knowledge and evidence from different sources and disciplines in psychology. A psychological framework can also provide a basis for generating hypotheses, designing experiments, and applying psychological theories and methods to real-world problems.

A psychological framework is a set of concepts and principles that guide the understanding and interpretation of human behavior and mental processes. It helps to organize and integrate the knowledge and evidence from different sources and disciplines in psychology. A psychological framework can also provide a basis for generating hypotheses, designing experiments, and applying psychological theories and methods to real-world problems.

Psychological functioning is how well a person operates in their mind, handles emotions, and manages daily life and relationships. It covers three main areas: cognitive skills, emotional control, and social adaptation

A psychological framework is a set of concepts and principles that guide the understanding and interpretation of human behaviour and mental processes. It helps to organize and integrate the knowledge and evidence from different sources and disciplines in psychology. A psychological framework can also provide a basis for generating hypotheses, designing experiments, and applying psychological theories and methods to real-world problems.

Psychological mechanisms are the mental processes that underlie human behaviour. They include cognitive, emotional, motivational, and social factors that influence how people think, feel, and act in different situations. Psychological mechanisms can be adaptive or maladaptive, depending on the context and the outcome of the behaviour.

Psychological multiplicity, as developed in this thesis, is the hypothesis that some of this plurality reflects organised differentiation within the psychological organism.

Psychological plurality refers to the observable fact that a person may experience or exhibit distinguishable psychological positions, motives, affects, self-representations or contributions.

A psychological state is a mental condition that has some degree of stability or consistency, even though it may change over time or in different situations. For example, a person may have a psychological state of happiness, sadness, anger, anxiety, or depression. Psychological states can be influenced by various factors, such as biological processes, environmental stimuli, cognitive processes, emotional reactions, and social interactions. Psychological states are different from psychological traits, which are more enduring and stable characteristics of a person's personality.

A psychological state is a mental condition that has some degree of stability or consistency, even though it may change over time or in different situations. For example, a person may have a psychological state of happiness, sadness, anger, anxiety, or depression. Psychological states can be influenced by various factors, such as biological processes, environmental stimuli, cognitive processes, emotional reactions, and social interactions. Psychological states are different from psychological traits, which are more enduring and stable characteristics of a person's personality.

According to Jung, psychological types are different ways of perceiving and judging reality. Jung distinguished between two basic attitudes (introversion and extraversion) and four functions (thinking, feeling, sensation and intuition). Each person has a dominant attitude and function that define their psychological type.

Psychosis is a mental disorder that affects a person's perception of reality. It can cause hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized thinking. Psychosis can be triggered by various factors, such as stress, trauma, substance abuse, or genetic predisposition. Psychosis can be treated with medication, psychotherapy, and social support.

Psychosocial rehabilitation is a treatment approach that aims to help people with mental illness improve their quality of life and functioning in their communities. It involves teaching them skills to cope with their emotions, thoughts, and behaviours, as well as providing them with support, education, and resources. Psychosocial rehabilitation is based on the principles of recovery, empowerment, hope, and social inclusion.

Psychotic features are symptoms of a mental disorder that involve a loss of contact with reality. They may include hallucinations, delusions, paranoia, or disorganized thinking. Psychotic features can occur in various conditions, such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, depression, or substance abuse.

A psychotic symptom is a disturbance in one's perception of reality, such as hallucinations, delusions, or disorganized thinking. Psychotic symptoms can interfere with a person's ability to function normally and may require treatment.

Puberty – The stage of life when a child’s body changes into an adult body capable of sexual reproduction.

Purpose in psychology is the sense of meaning and direction that one has in life. It is often associated with positive outcomes such as well-being, happiness, resilience, and fulfilment. Purpose can be derived from various sources, such as personal values, goals, passions, relationships, spirituality, or social causes. Having a clear and coherent purpose can help one to cope with challenges, overcome obstacles, and pursue one's aspirations.

The pyloric sphincter is a strong ring of smooth muscle acting as a valve between the stomach's bottom (pylorus) and the small intestine's first part (duodenum), controlling the release of partially digested food (chyme) into the intestine and preventing backflow into the stomach. It opens and closes involuntarily, regulated by nerve signals, allowing only small amounts of chyme to pass at a time, ensuring the small intestine isn't overwhelmed and digestion is efficient.

Qualia are the subjective experiences that accompany our conscious states, such as the redness of a rose, the taste of coffee, or the pain of a headache. Qualia are often considered to be ineffable, meaning that they cannot be fully captured or communicated by words or other symbols. Qualia pose a challenge for the scientific study of consciousness, as they seem to elude objective measurement and explanation.

Quality of life in psychology refers to the extent to which a person obtains satisfaction from life, considering various factors such as well-being, interpersonal relations, personal growth, human rights, self-determination and social participation. Quality of life is a subjective measure that depends on the individual's perception of their position in life in relation to their goals, expectations, standards and concerns. It is also influenced by the person's physical and mental health, as well as their environmental and social conditions. Quality of life is an important concept for psychologists because it reflects the person's overall well-being and happiness.

Quantum decoherence is the process where a quantum system loses its quantum properties, like superposition and interference, by leaking information into its surrounding environment. This interaction makes microscopic quantum behaviour look like predictable, everyday classical mechanics

A quantum effect is an effect that is not properly predicted by classical physics, but is properly predicted by quantum mechanics. Quantum mechanics describes the behaviour of nature at and below the scale of atoms, where matter and radiation exhibit both particle-like and wave-like properties. These are observed when these properties are significant or dominant, such as in the quantization of energy levels, the uncertainty principle, and the superposition of states. Quantum effects are essential for understanding many phenomena in physics, chemistry, biology, and technology.

A quantum field is a theoretical concept that describes how subatomic particles behave and interact in accordance with quantum mechanics and relativity. Quantum fields are associated with different types of particles, such as electrons, photons, quarks, and gluons. Each quantum field pervades the entire universe and has a value at every point in space and time. The value of a quantum field represents the probability of finding a particle of that type at that point. Particles can be seen as excitations or disturbances of their underlying quantum fields.

Quantum gravity is a theoretical framework that attempts to unify the principles of quantum mechanics and general relativity. It is one of the major unsolved problems in physics, as there is no consistent and experimentally verified theory of quantum gravity yet. Quantum gravity aims to describe the nature of gravity at the smallest scales, where classical physics breaks down and quantum effects become significant.

Quantum holography is a technique that uses quantum properties of light, such as entanglement or coherence, to create or reconstruct holograms of objects. Holograms are images that display the three-dimensional shape and structure of objects by recording the interference pattern of light waves. Quantum holography can overcome some limitations of conventional holography, such as the need for coherent light sources or high-sensitivity detectors, and can enable new applications in fields such as biomedical imaging, data storage and quantum information science.

Quantum mechanics is a fundamental theory in physics that describes the behaviour of matter and light on the atomic and subatomic scale. It is based on the concept of wave-particle duality, which means that elementary particles can exhibit both particle-like and wave-like properties. Quantum mechanics also incorporates the uncertainty principle, which states that there are limits to how precisely one can measure certain physical quantities, such as position and momentum, of a system. Quantum mechanics is the foundation of many branches of physics, such as quantum chemistry, quantum field theory, quantum technology, and quantum information science.

A quantum state is a mathematical description of the properties and behaviour of a quantum system, such as an atom, a photon, or an electron. A quantum state can be represented by a vector, a matrix, or a wave function, depending on the context and the type of system. A quantum state can change over time according to the laws of quantum mechanics, such as the Schrödinger equation or the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. A quantum state can also be measured by an observer, which may result in a collapse of the state to one of its possible outcomes.

A quantum wave function is a mathematical description of a quantum particle's state. It uses complex numbers to represent probabilities rather than a fixed position. Squaring it gives the likelihood of finding a particle in a specific place. Before a measurement, the particle exists as a spread-out wave of potential options

Quetiapine is a medicine that helps with mental health conditions such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder and depression. It belongs to a group of medicines called atypical antipsychotics. It works by affecting chemicals in your brain, such as dopamine and serotonin. Furthermore, it does not cure your condition, but it can help with the symptoms. Quetiapine is only available on prescription. It comes as tablets, including slow release tablets (these may have XL in the brand name), and as a liquid that you swallow.

Racing thoughts are a symptom of some mental health conditions, such as bipolar disorder, mania, anxiety, or OCD. They are thoughts that run through your mind rapidly and switch from one topic to another. They can be overwhelming, distracting, and hard to control. Racing thoughts can make it difficult to relax, sleep, or focus on the present moment. Some ways to cope with racing thoughts are breathing exercises, mantras, therapy, and medication.

Reflection is a process of examining and interpreting one's own thoughts, feelings, and actions. It can help people gain insight into themselves, their goals, their values, and their motivations. Reflection can also facilitate learning from experiences, both positive and negative, and enhance personal and professional growth.

Reframing is a technique that involves changing the way you think or talk about a situation, problem, or event. By adopting a different perspective, you can create new meanings and possibilities for yourself and others. Reframing can help you cope with stress, overcome challenges, and improve your well-being.

Relational functioning is the ability to establish and maintain healthy and satisfying relationships with others. It involves skills such as communication, empathy, conflict resolution, and cooperation. Relational functioning is important for personal and professional well-being, as well as for social cohesion and harmony.

A relationally oriented therapy is a type of psychotherapy that focuses on the quality of the therapeutic relationship between the therapist and the client. It aims to help clients develop a more authentic and satisfying way of relating to themselves and others, by exploring their patterns of attachment, communication, and emotional regulation.

Relative autonomy in psychology refers to the degree to which a person's behaviour is self-determined rather than controlled by external pressures. Found within Self-Determination Theory, it measures where an individual's motivation falls on a continuous spectrum from complete external control to total internal choice

Religion is a social phenomenon that involves beliefs, practices, and rituals related to higher powers, often exercised within the public arena. The psychology of religion is the study of religion from the human psychological point of view, interested in how religion affects human behaviour and experience. The psychology of religion explores topics such as why people believe in gods, what benefits they derive from their beliefs, how they cope with stress and loss, and how they relate to others who share or differ from their views.

A religious experience is a personal and subjective encounter with the divine or the sacred. It may involve a sense of awe, wonder, peace, guilt, or dependence on a higher power. It may also be a source of knowledge or revelation that is not accessible by ordinary means. Different religious traditions have different ways of interpreting and validating religious experiences. Some examples of religious experiences are visions, dreams, miracles, and mystical states.

Repression is a psychological defence mechanism that involves pushing unpleasant thoughts, feelings, or memories out of conscious awareness. Repression can help people cope with trauma or stress, but it can also have negative consequences for mental health and well-being.

A "resonance field" refers to concepts where resonance, the tendency of a system to oscillate with greater amplitude at certain frequencies, becomes a fundamental organising principle, linking physics (quantum mechanics, gravity) and consciousness, often involving harmonic patterns, geometry, and unified theories like Resonance Field Theory (RFT), extending beyond traditional physics to describe interconnectedness in reality, consciousness, and even human connection. It's a holistic idea suggesting reality's underlying structure is vibrational, not just discrete particles, with consciousness emerging from interactions within these fields.

The retina is a thin, light-sensitive layer of tissue that lines the inside back of the human eye. It acts like the digital sensor in a camera by converting incoming light into electrical signals that travel through the optic nerve to the brain to create images.

Risky behaviours are actions that expose a person to potential harm or negative consequences. Some examples of risky behaviours are smoking, drinking alcohol, driving recklessly, or engaging in unprotected sex. Risky behaviours can affect one's health, safety, relationships, and well-being.

Risperidone is a medication that belongs to a class of drugs called antipsychotics. It is used to treat schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and irritability associated with autism. Risperidone works by affecting the balance of certain chemicals in the brain called neurotransmitters.

Rituals are symbolic actions that express the beliefs and values of a community. They are often performed in a spiritual or religious context, to connect with a higher power, to celebrate important events, or to mark transitions in life. Rituals may involve gestures, words, objects, or actions, and they follow a set sequence or pattern. Some examples of rituals are prayers, sacraments, ceremonies, rites of passage, and festivals.

A role dispute is a situation where two or more people have different expectations or preferences about their respective roles in a relationship, such as a family, a workplace, or a friendship. A role dispute can cause conflict, stress, and dissatisfaction for the people involved. To resolve a role dispute, it is important to communicate clearly, listen empathetically, and negotiate a mutually acceptable solution.

Role transition is the process of changing from one role to another in a social context. For example, a person may experience role transition when they become a parent, a student, a manager, or a retiree. Role transition can involve changes in expectations, responsibilities, skills, behaviours, and relationships.

Role-playing is a psychological phenomenon in which a person assumes the identity, behaviour, and perspective of another individual or character, usually in a fictional or hypothetical scenario. Role-playing can serve various purposes, such as entertainment, education, therapy, or self-exploration.

Rumi was a 13th-century Persian poet, mystic, and scholar. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest poets of all time and a major influence on Islamic literature and culture. His works have been translated into many languages and have inspired countless artists and thinkers across the world.

Rumination is a mental process that involves repeatedly thinking about a problem, its causes and consequences, without taking any action to solve it or cope with it. Rumination can lead to negative emotions, such as stress, anxiety, and depression. It can also interfere with daily functioning and well-being.

Saccharomyces cerevisiae, commonly known as baker's yeast, is a unicellular eukaryote that has been utilized for thousands of years in baking, brewing, and winemaking. This yeast is distinguished by its relatively simple genetic structure, containing approximately 6,000 genes across 16 chromosomes.

The salience network is a large-scale brain network that consists of the anterior insula and dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, among other regions. It is involved in detecting and integrating salient stimuli from different sources, such as sensory, emotional, and cognitive information. The salience network also helps to switch between the default mode network and the central executive network, which are responsible for internal and external cognition, respectively.

Salutogenic is a term coined by the medical sociologist Aaron Antonovsky to describe an approach that focuses on factors that support human health and well-being, rather than on factors that cause disease. Salutogenic in psychological terms means the study of the psychological resources and processes that enable people to cope with stressors, overcome challenges, and thrive in the face of adversity. Salutogenic psychology emphasizes the role of positive emotions, optimism, resilience, self-efficacy, and social support in promoting mental health and preventing mental illness.

Satiety signals are the body's messages telling your brain you're full, triggered by food in your stomach and nutrients in your blood, involving hormones like CCK, GLP-1, and PYY, plus stomach stretching, to stop eating and signal energy balance, ultimately integrating in the hypothalamus for appetite control. These signals work through nerves (like the vagus nerve) and hormones to tell the brain, especially the hindbrain and hypothalamus, that the meal is done and to regulate long-term energy, influencing meal size and frequency.

Satisfaction in psychology is a term that refers to how content a person is with their life or specific aspects of it. It is a cognitive evaluation that can vary depending on the person's personality and goals. Satisfaction can be measured at a global level, such as life satisfaction, or at a domain-specific level, such as job satisfaction or relationship satisfaction. Satisfaction is related to happiness, but it is not the same thing. Happiness is a more emotional and transient state, while satisfaction is a more stable and rational judgment. Satisfaction is important for well-being, as it is associated with better physical health, higher performance, and stronger social relationships. Satisfaction can be influenced by two main factors: the person's expectations and the person's reality. If the reality matches or exceeds the expectations, the person will feel satisfied. If the reality falls short of the expectations, the person will feel dissatisfied. Therefore, satisfaction can be improved by either changing the reality or adjusting the expectations.

The Satisfaction with Life Scale is a psychological instrument that measures global life satisfaction. It consists of five statements that respondents rate on a seven-point scale, from strongly disagree, to strongly agree. The total score ranges from 5 to 35, with higher scores indicating higher satisfaction with life.

Scaffolded Development: Complex skills or structures do not emerge in isolation. They rely on a foundational layers of temporary support structures—known as "props" or scaffolds—that are progressively accumulated and built upon. As the higher-level hierarchical structure stabilizes, these supporting props are either integrated into the core system or discarded.

A schema mask is a dynamic set of access, transformation and routing rules that functionally compartmentalises an organised information domain and regulates its communication with other domains and conscious awareness.

Schema-mask friction: The psychological or regulatory cost arising when simultaneously relevant schemas or mask policies prescribe incompatible interpretations, access conditions or responses.

Sedentary activities are those that involve very little or no muscle movement and/or energy expenditure, and usually involve sitting. Examples of sedentary activities include TV viewing, computer use, sitting in an automobile, or most other activities that involve sitting. Sedentary behaviour is defined as any waking activity that requires an energy expenditure ranging from 1.0 to 1.5 basal metabolic rate, performed in a sitting or reclining posture.

Selective conscious access is the cognitive and neural process by which the brain filters competing sensory inputs, using selective attention as a gateway to allow specific information to cross the threshold into global conscious awareness, reasoning, and active memory

In neuropsychology, a selective dissociation occurs when a brain injury or experimental condition impairs one cognitive or emotional function while leaving another closely related function completely intact. This selective pattern helps researchers map specific mental processes to distinct neural networks.

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are a class of drugs that are used to treat depression and anxiety disorders. They work by blocking the reabsorption of serotonin, a neurotransmitter that regulates mood, sleep, and appetite, in the brain. This increases the amount of serotonin available in the synaptic cleft, where it can bind to receptors and exert its effects. SSRIs are generally considered safe and effective, but they may cause some side effects such as nausea, insomnia, sexual dysfunction, and withdrawal symptoms.

Self-actualisation is the psychological process of realizing and fulfilling your unique potential, capacities, and talents. Popularized by psychologist Abraham Maslow, it sits at the peak of his hierarchy of needs, representing the drive to become the most authentic version of yourself rather than conforming to outside expectations

Self-agency is the feeling of controlling our actions and their consequences. It is also the sense that some actions are self-generated. Self-agency is an important aspect of empowerment and success in life.

Self-awareness is the ability to recognize and reflect on one's own thoughts, feelings, and actions. It is a key component of psychological well-being and a prerequisite for self-regulation, self-improvement, and social interaction. Self-awareness can be assessed by various methods, such as introspection, self-report, behavioural observation, and neuroimaging.

A self-centred perspective is a way of viewing oneself and the world that focuses on one's own needs, interests, and feelings. It is often associated with narcissism, which is a personality trait characterized by an inflated sense of self-importance, entitlement, and lack of empathy. A self-centred person may have difficulty forming and maintaining healthy relationships, as they tend to disregard the feelings and opinions of others. They may also have unrealistic expectations of themselves and others, and react negatively to criticism or feedback. A self-centred perspective can be influenced by various factors, such as early childhood experiences, genetic predispositions, social and cultural norms, and psychological disorders.

A self-centred perspective is a way of viewing oneself and the world that focuses on one's own needs, interests, and feelings. It is often associated with narcissism, which is a personality trait characterized by an inflated sense of self-importance, entitlement, and lack of empathy. A self-centred person may have difficulty forming and maintaining healthy relationships, as they tend to disregard the feelings and opinions of others. They may also have unrealistic expectations of themselves and others, and react negatively to criticism or feedback. A self-centred perspective can be influenced by various factors, such as early childhood experiences, genetic predispositions, social and cultural norms, and psychological disorders.

Self-concealment is a psychological trait defined as the active, intentional hiding of personal information, thoughts, or events that a person perceives as negative, distressing, or shameful. Unlike casual secrecy, it is a habitual pattern of holding back intimate personal details out of fear of judgment

Self-condemnation is the act or habit of judging, blaming, and strongly criticizing yourself for your own actions, thoughts, or perceived failures. It goes beyond healthy guilt by trapping a person in deep shame and worthlessness

Self-consciousness is a personality trait that involves the tendency to reflect on or think about oneself. It can be divided into two types: private and public. Private self-consciousness refers to the awareness of one's inner thoughts, feelings and motives. Public self-consciousness refers to the awareness of how one is perceived by others. Self-consciousness can affect one's behaviour, emotions and identity in various ways.

Self-criticism is the tendency to evaluate oneself harshly. Self-critical individuals are always scrutinizing themselves and their performance in most areas of their life. Self-criticism can have negative consequences on one's mental health and well-being, such as depression, anxiety, and low self-esteem. Self-criticism can also interfere with one's ability to cope with challenges and pursue goals. This may originate from early experiences with caregivers, peers, teachers, or other influences that made one feel inadequate or unworthy. Self-criticism can be overcome by developing self-compassion, self-awareness, and self-acceptance.

Self-efficacy is a psychological concept that refers to one's belief in one's ability to perform a specific task or achieve a certain goal. It is influenced by factors such as past experiences, feedback, modelling, and emotional states. Self-efficacy can affect one's motivation, effort, persistence, and resilience in the face of challenges or setbacks. People with high self-efficacy tend to have more confidence, optimism, and positive outcomes than those with low self-efficacy.

Self-embodiment is a state of deep connection between mind and body, feeling fully present in your physical self and sensations, dissolving the mind-body division, and expressing your inner experience through tangible actions, movement, or being, moving from pure thought to felt experience. It involves being attuned to your breath, movement, and energy, and is practiced through activities like yoga, mindful movement, or simply focusing on bodily sensations, contrasting with dissociation.

Self-esteem is a psychological term that refers to the subjective evaluation of one's own worth, abilities, and achievements. Self-esteem can be positive or negative, and it can affect various aspects of one's life, such as motivation, emotions, behaviour, and relationships. It is influenced by many factors, such as genetic predisposition, personality traits, social feedback, cultural norms, and personal experiences.

The ability to lose oneself in an activity or a relationship, and to experience joy and peace without self-consciousness or ego-involvement.

Self-forgetfulness in psychology is a state of mind where one becomes less aware of one's own thoughts, feelings, and ego. It can be induced by various factors, such as meditation, flow, altruism, or awe. Self-forgetfulness can have positive effects on well-being, creativity, and social connection.

In psychology, self-interest is often related to the concept of self-concept, which is the image we have of ourselves. Self-concept consists of three components: self-image, ideal self, and self-esteem. Self-image is how we see ourselves at the present moment, ideal self is who we want to be, and self-esteem is how much we value ourselves. When there is a match between our self-image and our ideal self, we have a congruent self-concept. When there is a mismatch, we have an incongruent self-concept. Self-interest can affect our self-concept by influencing how we perceive our traits, roles, and goals. It can also affect how we compare ourselves to others and how we cope with challenges and feedback.

Self-interest is a term that can have different meanings depending on the context. In general, it refers to a focus on one's own needs or desires. It can be both a psychological and economic term, and is often studied in various fields such as philosophy, psychology, and economics. Self-interest can motivate human action, and actions that display self-interest are often performed unconsciously. Self-interest can also be related to one's well-being, which is what makes their life go well. It can be a motive or a disposition of character: persons are said to act from self-interest when they aim at their own good, or to be self-interested when they are disposed to pursue their own good.

Self-knowledge is the understanding of your own character, feelings, motives, values, and abilities. It is a continuous, lifelong process of learning who you are, what you want, and why you act the way you do.

Self-monitoring is a psychological concept that means watching and changing your own behaviour, feelings, and actions to fit social rules or reach personal goals. People use it to manage how others see them or to track habits like health, mood, or work focus

Self-regulation is the ability to control one's thoughts, emotions, and behaviours in order to achieve personal goals and cope with challenges. Self-regulation involves both conscious and unconscious processes that influence how we perceive, interpret, and respond to various situations. It can be influenced by factors such as personality, motivation, social context, and cognitive skills. Self-regulation is important for psychological well-being, as it helps us to adapt to changing circumstances, manage stress, and pursue our values and interests.

Self-salience is a term that describes how much people value their own needs and interests over those of others in social situations. It affects how people show their mental health problems and deal with their challenges. Self-salience can also affect how organizations use social media to make their issues more noticeable to their followers.

A self-schema is a cognitive mental structure that organizes how an individual perceives, remembers, and evaluates information about themselves. It includes core traits like extraversion, athleticism, or intelligence that a person considers vital to their identity

Our knowledge of who we are is mediated by what we doctors of the mind call our self-schemata... cognitive generalisations derived from experience that organise and guide the processing of self-related information, and proposed that these structures may develop in particular domains of a person's life.

Self-stigma happens when a person internalizes society's negative and false views about a condition or identity—such as a mental health issue—and applies those unfair stereotypes to themselves. This process leads to painful self-blame, lowered self-worth, and a harmful "why try" effect that stops people from seeking help or chasing personal goals

The self-system is a psychological concept. It refers to an individual's inner network of beliefs, behaviors, and self-perceptions. It helps people make sense of the world, manage their goals, and lower feelings of anxiety.

Self-transcendence is a concept in psychology that refers to the ability to go beyond own ego and personal interests, and connect with something greater than oneself. It can involve a sense of spirituality, altruism, or purpose in life. Self-transcendence can enhance well-being, creativity, and resilience.

A self-transcendent experience is a state of consciousness in which one feels connected to something greater than oneself, such as nature, humanity, or the divine. It can be triggered by various factors, such as meditation, music, art, or awe-inspiring scenery. Self-transcendence can have positive effects on well-being, creativity, and altruism.

Human sensations are driven by specialized biological systems that detect changes inside and outside the body. While people traditionally learn about five basic external senses, science shows humans actually possess many more internal and specialized sensory modalities

A sense of self is a psychological construct that refers to one's awareness of one's own identity, personality, preferences, beliefs, values, goals and abilities. It is influenced by various factors such as genetics, environment, culture, social interactions and personal experiences. A sense of self can be seen as a dynamic and evolving process that shapes one's self-concept, self-esteem, self-efficacy and self-regulation.

Sensory cues are signals that our senses perceive from the environment or from our own bodies. They help us to understand and respond to what is happening around us. For example, when we see a red light, we know that we have to stop; when we smell something burning, we know that there is a fire; when we feel pain, we know that we are injured.

Sensory gating is the brain's automatic process of filtering out repetitive, unimportant environmental stimuli—such as the hum of a refrigerator or ticking of a clock—to prevent sensory overload in higher brain centres

Serotonin is a chemical that your body produces from an amino acid called tryptophan. It acts as a neurotransmitter, which means it carries signals between nerve cells in your brain and other parts of your body. Serotonin affects many functions, such as mood, sleep, appetite, digestion, nausea, wound healing, bone health and sexual desire. Serotonin levels that are too high or too low can cause problems for your physical and mental health .

Serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) are a class of drugs that treat depression and anxiety. They work by increasing the levels of serotonin and norepinephrine, two neurotransmitters that regulate mood, in the brain. SNRIs block the reabsorption of these chemicals by nerve cells, making them more available for communication between neurons. SNRIs can help improve symptoms such as low mood, lack of interest, nervousness, and worry.

Signal transduction is the cellular process of converting an external chemical or physical message into a coordinated internal response. It functions through a multi-step pathway where extracellular signals bind to specific receptors, triggering molecular relays that direct cell growth, division, metabolism, or death

Signalling molecules are chemical messengers (like hormones, neurotransmitters, growth factors) that transmit information between cells, enabling communication, coordination, and physiological responses in multicellular organisms, acting by binding to specific receptors on target cells to trigger internal changes, ranging from short-range local signals (paracrine) to long-distance travel (endocrine). They vary widely in structure, from small gases to large proteins, and are crucial for development, immunity, and maintaining homeostasis, with errors often linked to diseases.

Sleep deprivation is the condition of not having enough sleep to support good health and wellbeing. It can affect anyone at any age and can be caused by various factors, such as lifestyle choices, work schedules, medical conditions, or poor sleep quality. Sleep deprivation can have negative effects on our physical and mental health, such as impaired memory, mood, concentration, immune system, and metabolism. To prevent sleep deprivation, it is recommended to get at least seven hours of sleep per night for adults and more for children and teens.

The smoke-detector principle explains why biological defense mechanisms—such as anxiety, pain, fever, and vomiting—frequently trigger false alarms. Because the cost of a false alarm is minimal compared to the catastrophic cost of missing a real threat, natural selection optimizes systems to be over-responsive

Social activism is the practice of using various forms of collective action to promote social change. It can involve raising awareness, organizing campaigns, lobbying policymakers, protesting injustice, or engaging in direct action. Social activists aim to challenge the status quo and create a more equitable and sustainable society.

Social camouflaging is a coping strategy where individuals hide or compensate for autistic traits to blend in with neurotypical social norms, often involving masking, mirroring, and assimilation.

Social cognition is the study of how people process and use social information. It involves understanding how people perceive, interpret, remember, and communicate about themselves and others in social situations. Social cognition also examines how people apply their social knowledge to guide their behaviour and decision-making.

Social connectedness is a psychological term that refers to the quality and number of connections we have with other people in our social networks of family, friends and acquaintances. It is also the subjective awareness of being in close relationship with the social world. Social connectedness is a core psychological need that is essential for feeling satisfied with life and for having good mental health. Research has shown that social connectedness can serve as a protective factor against stress, loneliness, depression, anxiety and other mental health problems . Social connectedness can also enhance our sense of belonging, identity, self-esteem and wellbeing.

Social norms are the unwritten rules of behaviour that are considered acceptable in a group or society. They help people to coordinate their actions and expectations, and to avoid conflicts and misunderstandings. Psychologists study social norms to understand how they influence human behaviour, attitudes, and emotions. Some of the factors that affect social norms are culture, context, conformity, and social roles.

Social relationships are the connections and interactions that people have with each other. They can be categorized into different types, such as family, friends, romantic partners, coworkers, and acquaintances. Social relationships are important for human well-being, as they provide support, belonging, intimacy, and socialization. Psychology studies how social relationships affect people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviours, as well as how people form, maintain, and end social relationships.

Social relationships are the connections and interactions that people have with each other. They can be categorized into different types, such as family, friends, romantic partners, coworkers, and acquaintances. Social relationships are important for human well-being, as they provide support, belonging, intimacy, and socialization. Psychology studies how social relationships affect people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviours, as well as how people form, maintain, and end social relationships.

Somatic is an adjective that means relating to the body, especially as distinct from the mind. For example, somatic symptoms are physical signs of mental distress, such as headaches or stomachaches. Somatic can also refer to a type of therapy that focuses on the connection between the body and the mind, and helps people heal from trauma by releasing tension and emotions stored in the body.

What is something greater than oneself? This is a question that many people ask themselves at some point in their lives. Some possible answers are: a cause, a community, a family, a faith, or a legacy. These are things that transcend the individual and give meaning and purpose to one's existence. They are also things that require sacrifice, commitment, and dedication. To pursue something greater than oneself is to challenge oneself to grow and contribute to the world positively.

The soul is a concept that refers to the immaterial essence of a living being. It is often associated with the mind, the consciousness, or the self. Different philosophical and religious traditions have different views on the nature, origin, and destiny of the soul. Some believe that the soul is immortal and transcends the physical body, while others think that the soul is inseparable from the body and ceases to exist after death.

A space-time coordinate is a way of specifying the location and time of an event in a four-dimensional continuum. The four dimensions are usually labelled as x, y, z, and t, where x, y, and z are the spatial coordinates and t is the temporal coordinate. A space-time coordinate can be expressed as an ordered set of four numbers, such as (x, y, z, t), or as a single number that combines the four dimensions, such as the Minkowski metric.

A spectral coordinate is a numerical value that represents the position of a point on the visible spectrum of light. The visible spectrum is the range of wavelengths or frequencies of light that humans can perceive as colours. A spectral colour is a colour that is evoked by monochromatic light, i.e. either a spectral line with a single wavelength or frequency of light in the visible spectrum, or a relatively narrow spectral band (e.g. lasers). The spectral coordinate can be expressed in terms of wavelength, frequency, or chromaticity, which is a two-dimensional representation of colour based on hue and saturation.

Spinal pathways are neural tracts within the spinal cord that act as information highways, connecting the brain to the body, divided into ascending (sensory) pathways carrying signals up (pain, touch, temp) and descending (motor) pathways carrying commands down (movement). Key sensory pathways include the Dorsal Column-Medial Lemniscus (fine touch) and Spinothalamic (pain/temp), while major motor tracts are the Corticospinal (voluntary movement) and extrapyramidal tracts like Rubrospinal, Vestibulospinal, Reticulospinal. These pathways use chains of neurons, often crossing over (decussating) to relay information between body sides.

Spiritual acceptance: the openness and receptivity to spiritual ideas and experiences, such as faith, intuition, transcendence, and mysticism.

The spiritual dimension in psychology is the aspect of human experience that relates to the transcendent, the sacred, or the higher self. It involves the search for meaning, purpose, and fulfilment in life; the expression of one's beliefs and values; and the connection with oneself, others, and the universe. The spiritual dimension can be explored through various practices, such as meditation, prayer, service, nature, or yoga. It can also be influenced by one's religious or cultural background, personal experiences, and world-view. The spiritual dimension can have positive effects on one's health and well-being, such as enhancing coping skills, resilience, compassion, and happiness. However, it can also pose challenges, such as spiritual distress, doubt, or conflict. Therefore, it is important for psychologists to be aware of and respectful of their clients' spiritual needs and preferences.

Spiritual growth is the process of developing and deepening one's connection with oneself, others, and a higher power or reality. It involves moving from self-centredness to self-transcendence, from survival and desire to meaning and purpose, from attachment and loss to love and compassion. Spiritual growth can be seen as a movement through different stages of faith or awareness, as well as different trajectories of sensitivity or values. Psychology can help us understand and facilitate spiritual growth by clarifying the factors that influence our development, such as our experiences, relationships, practices, and beliefs. Spiritual growth is not limited to any specific religion or tradition, but is a universal human potential that can enrich our lives and well-being.

Spirituality in psychology is a sub-field that explores the spiritual and transcendent aspects of human experience. It is also known as transpersonal psychology. It aims to understand how people find meaning, purpose, and connection beyond the physical and sensory realm. Spirituality in psychology can involve various practices and beliefs, such as meditation, prayer, service, nature, and religion. It can also examine how spirituality affects mental and physical health, well-being, creativity, and consciousness.

A state-space representation is a mathematical model of a physical or dynamic system. It uses input, output, and state variables combined through first-order differential or difference equations, instead of using high-order differential equations

Status-seeking is an innate human drive to improve relative social rank, power, or prestige within a group. Rooted in evolutionary biology where standing meant better access to resources and survival, it now influences modern choices, behaviours, and consumer habits.

Stereotypes are the generalized beliefs we have about groups of people, based on their membership in certain categories, such as race, gender, or age.

Stomach acid, primarily hydrochloric acid (HCl), is a powerful digestive fluid with a pH of 1.5-3.5, crucial for breaking down food (especially proteins into amino acids), activating digestive enzymes like pepsin, and killing harmful bacteria and pathogens ingested with food. It's produced by the stomach lining and protected by a thick mucus layer, but issues arise if it's too weak (hypochlorhydria) or too strong, leading to digestive problems or reflux (heartburn).

The stomach lining, or gastric mucosa, is the innermost layer of the stomach wall, composed of folded tissue (rugae) that expands and contracts, containing glands producing protective mucus, acid, and enzymes for digestion. This vital lining protects the stomach from its own harsh digestive juices and allows food to mix and move, but it can become inflamed (gastritis) or damaged by bacteria like H. pylori, alcohol, or painkillers, potentially leading to ulcers or other complications.

Stress is a psychological and physiological response to a perceived challenge or threat. Stress can be positive or negative, depending on how a person appraises and copes with the situation. Positive stress can motivate and energize a person, while negative stress can impair their functioning and well-being. Some common sources of stress are work, relationships, health problems, and life changes. Some common symptoms of stress are anxiety, irritability, fatigue, insomnia, and headaches.

Stress indicators manifest physically (headaches, fatigue, tense muscles, stomach issues), emotionally (irritability, anxiety, feeling overwhelmed, sadness), cognitively (poor memory, trouble focusing, racing thoughts), and behaviourally (sleep changes, altered eating, social withdrawal, increased substance use). Recognizing these signs, which vary by person, helps you address stress before it escalates.

Stress-regulation systems involve the brain (amygdala, prefrontal cortex), autonomic nervous system (sympathetic for "fight-or-flight," parasympathetic for "rest-and-digest"), and the HPA axis (hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal), working together to manage perceived threats, releasing hormones like adrenaline and cortisol, and then returning the body to balance through opposing actions and brain regulation.

A stressor is any event or situation that causes stress in a person's life. Stressors can be external, such as work deadlines, traffic jams, or family conflicts, or internal, such as unrealistic expectations, negative thoughts, or health problems. Stressors can affect a person's physical and mental well-being, depending on how they cope with them.

String theory is a theoretical framework in physics that attempts to unify quantum mechanics and general relativity by replacing the point-like particles of particle physics with one-dimensional objects called strings. These strings can vibrate in different ways, giving rise to different types of particles and forces, including gravity. String theory is a candidate for a theory of everything, but it faces many challenges and open questions.

Structured reminiscence is a psychological intervention that involves recalling and sharing personal memories in a guided and organized way. It aims to enhance wellbeing, reduce depression, and improve cognitive functioning among older adults and other populations.

The Subjective Units of Disturbance (SUD) scale is a tool for measuring the intensity of emotional distress. It is a self-report scale that ranges from 0 to 10, where 0 means no distress and 10 means extreme distress. The SUD scale can be used to monitor the progress of therapy or to evaluate the effectiveness of interventions.

Sugar – Usually means glucose, the main type of sugar in the blood that the body uses for energy.

A superposition of states is a quantum principle that describes how a physical system, such as an electron or a photon, can exist in a combination of two or more possible states at the same time. For example, an electron can be in a superposition of two different locations or velocities, each with a certain probability of being observed. A superposition of states can be represented mathematically as a wave function, which is a sum of the possible states and their corresponding probabilities. The wave function can be used to calculate the expected outcomes of measurements on the system. When a measurement is performed, the system collapses into one of the possible states randomly, according to the Schrödinger equation.

Supported employment is a service that helps people with disabilities find and keep jobs in the community. It is based on the idea that everyone can work and benefit from it. It supports people according to their preferences, skills, and goals. This does not require long training or testing, but helps people get jobs quickly and stay in them. It works with employers, mentors, and coworkers to provide ongoing support.

Suppression of needs is the conscious act of pushing away or ignoring uncomfortable feelings, desires, or impulses, often to maintain composure or avoid conflict, but it's a temporary fix that can backfire, leading to emotional build-up, amplified negative feelings, and eventual outbursts, as the brain paradoxically focuses more on what's being suppressed, requiring healthier coping mechanisms like acknowledging emotions for true regulation.

The sympathetic nervous system (SNS) is a branch of the autonomic nervous system that controls the body's response to stress or danger. The SNS activates the "fight or flight" reaction, which prepares the body to either confront or escape a threat. The SNS does this by increasing the heart rate, blood pressure, breathing rate, pupil size, and blood flow to the muscles. The SNS also inhibits some functions that are not essential in an emergency, such as digestion and urination. The SNS works in opposition to the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS), which promotes relaxation and recovery after a stressful situation.

According to Jung, synchronicity is a concept that describes meaningful coincidences that do not have an obvious cause. Jung considered synchronicity as an acausal connecting principle that challenges the classical view of causality and probability. Jung also conducted an astrological experiment to test his theory of synchronicity.

The term syntony refers to a state of being in harmony or resonance with one's environment, or a matching of frequencies between two oscillators. It is derived from the Greek word syntonia, which means agreement or being in tune. Syntony can be used in different contexts, such as psychology, electronics, or music.

Telepathy is the ability to communicate with others using only the mind, without any verbal or physical interaction. Telepathy is often considered a paranormal phenomenon, but some scientists have explored the possibility of natural or artificial telepathy through brain-computer interfaces or quantum entanglement. Telepathy is not widely accepted as a real phenomenon by the scientific community, and there is no conclusive evidence to support its existence.

Testes – Organs in the male body that make sperm and hormones like testosterone.

Testosterone – A sex hormone that helps control muscle mass, body hair, sex drive, and sperm production, especially in men.

The divine is a concept that refers to the transcendent or supreme reality that is the source of all existence and meaning. The divine can be understood in different ways by different religions, cultures and philosophies, but it often implies a sense of sacredness, holiness or perfection. The divine may also be associated with attributes such as love, wisdom, power and justice, or with manifestations such as nature, art, beauty and morality.

A therapist is a professional who provides psychological services to clients who are experiencing mental or emotional distress. A therapist may use various techniques, such as cognitive-behavioural therapy, interpersonal therapy, or psychodynamic therapy, to help clients cope with their problems and improve their well-being. A therapist may also refer clients to other resources, such as medication, support groups, or specialized treatment programs, if needed.

Threat imminence is a psychological and neurobiological framework describing how humans and animals change their behaviour, brain activity, and physical arousal depending on how close a danger is in time, space, or probability. As a threat gets closer, the brain shifts from cautious assessment to active defence or escape

Human threat-conditioning (or fear-conditioning) experiments are laboratory procedures where a neutral cue (like a sound or a shape) is paired with an unpleasant stimulus (like a mild shock or loud noise). Over time, participants learn to anticipate the threat, triggering measurable bodily and neural responses

The threat-imminence continuum (also known as the predatory imminence continuum) is a model in behavioural neuroscience and psychology. It explains how humans and animals change their defensive behaviours and brain activity depending on how close and likely a danger is

Thyroid disorders – Problems with the thyroid gland that cause it to make too much or too little hormone.

Thyroid hormones – Hormones made by the thyroid gland that help control the body’s energy use, temperature, and general speed of body processes.

Tissue repair – The body’s process of healing and rebuilding damaged parts like skin, muscle, or organs.

Tonic immobility is an involuntary, reflexive state of total motor paralysis and unresponsiveness. Triggered by extreme, overwhelming fear or physical restraint, it acts as a final defense mechanism when escape or fighting back is impossible. It occurs across many species, including animals, sharks, and humans.

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a non-invasive procedure that uses magnetic fields to stimulate nerve cells in the brain. It is used to treat mental health disorders, particularly depression, as well as neurological disorders. The procedure involves a magnetic coil that is placed over the scalp. Repetitive magnetic pulses emanate through the coil, enter the brain, and activate neurons in targeted regions, such as those that govern emotion regulation.

The sense of belonging and connection with other people, nature, and the cosmos, and the recognition of the interdependence of all life forms.

Trauma in psychology refers to an emotional response to a stressful or harmful event, such as an accident, rape, or natural disaster. Trauma can cause various symptoms, such as flashbacks, panic attacks, dissociation, sleep problems, and low self-esteem. Trauma can affect anyone differently, depending on the type and severity of the event, and the person's coping skills and support system.

Trauma-informed psychotherapy is a therapeutic framework that acknowledges the widespread impact of trauma, focusing on creating a safe, trusting environment to avoid re-traumatization and promote healing, shifting from "What's wrong with you?" to "What happened to you?". It emphasizes core principles like safety, trust, choice, collaboration, empowerment, and cultural sensitivity, guiding practitioners to understand trauma's effects on a person's worldview and behaviour to offer compassionate, person-centred support and facilitate recovery from past distressing experiences.

Trauma in psychology refers to an emotional response to a stressful or harmful event, such as an accident, rape, or natural disaster. Trauma can cause various symptoms, such as flashbacks, panic attacks, dissociation, sleep problems, and low self-esteem. Trauma can affect anyone differently, depending on the type and severity of the event, and the person's coping skills and support system.

Tricyclic antidepressants are a class of drugs that treat depression and some other mental disorders. They work by increasing the levels of certain neurotransmitters, such as serotonin and norepinephrine, in the brain. These chemicals help regulate mood, sleep, and pain. Tricyclic antidepressants have more side effects than newer antidepressants, such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), and are usually prescribed when other treatments have failed.

The triple bottom line is a concept that measures the performance of an organization not only by its financial results, but also by its social and environmental impacts. It is based on the idea that businesses have a responsibility to contribute to the well-being of the planet and its people, as well as to generate profits. The triple bottom line is often represented by three P's: profit, people, and planet.

A two-dimensional boundary is a line that separates two regions or areas on a plane. For example, the boundary of a circle is the circumference, and the boundary of a square is the four sides. A two-dimensional boundary can also be defined as the set of points where a function changes its value or sign. For example, the boundary of the region where f(x,y) > 0 is the curve where f(x,y) = 0.

O. Hobart Mowrer's two-factor theory proposes that fear and avoidance behavior are learned through two distinct processes: classical conditioning creates the initial fear, and operant conditioning maintains it through negative reinforcement when a person escapes or avoids the feared stimulus

Unexplained weight change – Gaining or losing weight without trying to, and without a clear reason like changes in diet or exercise.

According to Bohm, a process of unfoldment is a way of revealing the explicate order of reality from the deeper implicate order. The implicate order is a realm of undivided wholeness, where everything is enfolded into everything else. The explicate order is the realm of separate and observable phenomena, where things are unfolded from the implicate order. Bohm likens unfoldment to the decoding of a television signal to produce a sensible image on a screen.

Uniqueness is a psychological concept that refers to the degree to which a person or a group differs from others in terms of their traits, values, behaviours, or experiences. Uniqueness can be seen as a source of identity, motivation, creativity, or diversity, but it can also entail challenges such as isolation, rejection, or conflict. It can be measured by various methods, such as self-report scales, peer ratings, or behavioural observations.

Unity in psychology is the idea that the human mind and behaviour are coherent and consistent, and that they can be understood as a whole rather than as a collection of separate parts or processes. Unity implies that there is a harmony and integration among the different aspects of psychological functioning, such as cognition, emotion, motivation, personality, and social interaction. Unity also suggests that there is a continuity and stability of the self across time and situations, and that there is a correspondence between the self and reality.

The upper abdomen is the area between your ribs and belly button, housing vital organs like the stomach, liver, gallbladder, spleen, pancreas, and parts of the small intestine, large intestine, and kidneys. It's divided into sections, with the central top part called the epigastric region, where pain might signal issues with digestion (like heartburn, ulcers) or biliary (gallbladder/liver) problems, while the sides involve organs like the spleen (left) or gallbladder (right).

User profiles in psychology are descriptions of the characteristics, preferences, and behaviours of a specific group of people. User profiles can help designers and researchers understand the needs, goals, and expectations of their target audience. They are often based on data collected from surveys, interviews, observations, or other methods. User profiles can also include information such as demographics, personality traits, motivations, attitudes, values, and interests. They are different from personas, which are fictional representations of typical users that are based on user research. Also, they are more factual and less narrative than personas. User profiles can be used to inform design decisions, evaluate usability, and improve user satisfaction.

The vagus nerve is the main nerve of the parasympathetic system, connecting the brain to organs like the heart and gut, controlling involuntary functions like digestion and heart rate, and playing roles in mood and stress response; its damage causes issues like gastroparesis (slow stomach emptying) and vasovagal syncope (fainting), while Vagus Nerve Stimulation (VNS) helps treat conditions like epilepsy and depression by calming the body.

The Validity of Cognition (VOC) scale is a measure of how strongly a person believes in their thoughts or beliefs. It is often used in cognitive therapy to assess the degree of conviction that a person has in their negative or dysfunctional cognitions. The scale ranges from 0 (completely unbelievable) to 100 (completely believable). A higher VOC score indicates a stronger belief in one's cognition, which may make it more difficult to challenge or modify.

Valproate is a medication that is used to treat epilepsy, bipolar disorder and prevent migraines. It works by stabilizing the electrical activity in the brain and affecting certain chemicals that are involved in mood regulation. Valproate can have serious side effects, especially for women who are pregnant or may become pregnant. Valproate can cause birth defects and developmental disorders in children exposed to it during pregnancy. Therefore, valproate is not recommended for women of childbearing age unless they are on a pregnancy prevention programme and other treatments are not effective or tolerated. Valproate should be taken as prescribed by a doctor and monitored regularly for its effectiveness and safety.

The vestibular body is a term that refers to the part of the inner ear that is responsible for the sense of balance and spatial orientation. It consists of sensory receptors that detect movement, gravity, and vibration. The vestibular body helps to coordinate movement with balance and to control muscle tone and reflexes.

Viktor Frankl was a Jewish-Austrian psychiatrist and psychotherapist who developed the psychological approach known as logo therapy, which is based on the idea that finding meaning in life is the primary human motivation. He is considered as the founder of the third school of Viennese psychotherapy, after Freud and Adler. He survived the Holocaust and wrote about his experiences in his best-selling book Man's Search for Meaning. Furthermore, he published 39 books and received numerous honours and awards for his contributions to psychology and philosophy.

Visual perception is the brain's ability to receive, organize, and interpret light signals gathered by the eyes. It goes beyond simple eyesight (visual acuity) to give meaning, depth, and spatial awareness to what a person sees.

Wisdom is a complex and multifaceted concept that has been studied by psychologists from various perspectives. According to one influential theory by Baltes and colleagues, wisdom is “expert knowledge in the fundamental pragmatics of life that permits exceptional insight, judgment, and advice about complex and uncertain matters.” This definition implies that wisdom involves not only cognitive aspects, such as knowledge and experience, but also reflective and prosocial aspects, such as understanding, tolerance, and compassion. Wisdom is not the same as intelligence, nor is it automatically acquired with age or experience. Rather, wisdom is the result of a deliberate and lifelong process of learning from one's own and others' experiences, integrating multiple viewpoints, and applying one's knowledge and values to real-life situations.